-PR TCDESCRIPTORS

ABSTRACT

CE 017 791

En Pr duci Industrie Reprinted from the. Occupational Oa%look Ramdboek, 1979-79 Edition.Eureau of LaXor Statistics (DOL),.yashington, D.Sm1.11955-37'7925P-; Plotogiaphs and Other ilItstrations indgcusent will not reproduce ell;. For relateddocesentS see CE 0,1 1. 756-797Superint6ndent of Do66nents, povernsenePiint.Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 S0.50 peg, -r print ;

) $0.00 for, set of 42)

EF-$0e93 WC-$7.67 Plat Postage.Electricity:. *Employment Opportunitie eploymenProjections; *Empioymeni (Nalifidation Employ4entTrends; *Energy; Fuels;.Itforeation Sources; JobSkills; J613 Trainitg,7*Occupational Information;Occupational Nobility; Petroleum Industry; Promotion(Occupational) : Public Relations; Salaries; ServiceOccupations; solar Radiation; *Utilities; Wages; WorkEnvironment

Focusing on occupations in energy - producingdustrieso this document is one in a series of forty -one reprintsom the Occupational CutlUok Handbook providing ourte4t.inforeationd exploYseht projections for indivtduaroccUpations and induStries

through 1985. The specific occupations covered inAhisOocumentinclUde Coal wining,,, occupations in the electrid power industry0-powerylant occupatiOnsotranetission end-distribution occitpatiOnsecustomer service occupations, occupations in the 'nuclear energyfield, Occupationt in.petrolewe andHnatural gas production and gasprocessing, and occupations in the petroleum refining industry. Thefollowing information is presented for each occUpatiOn oroccupational area: a code number referenced to the Dictionary -ofoccupational Titlesa description ofthe nature of the .cork; placesof employaent; training, other qualifications, and advancement':.emplotment outlook; earnings and working conditiots;and sources ofadditional information. It 'addition to the, forty-one reprintsCovering indAvidual.occupations or occupational areas-ACE 017757-797), a companion document (CE 017 756) presetts employment.projeCtions for _the total labor market and discdsses the relationshipbetween job prospects and education. (BE)

*** ********* ******** *- *** ** ** *********Reproductions supplied by EDEs are the best that can be made

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COAL MINING

N tUnd o1 a Induatry

Coal has played a vital role.in thedevelopment of this Nation-Original-ly used only as a source of heat, coil'grew rapidly as a source of powerwith the coming of the 'ream engine.

.13y the beginning of the 20th century,Coal had become vital, not only forheating homes and powering loco-motives, but also as a source of ener-gy for producing electric power and anecessary ingredienosfor -makingsteel. Although coal has been largelyreplaced by other fuels for heating

transportation, it is used in prod-ucts ranging from lipstick to chemi-

- call, and most importantly as asource of electric power.

Coal usually is divided into twoclasses. 'bituminous and anthracite.Bituminous. or "soft" coal, is themost widely used and the mostplentiful, and accounts for most coalproduction. Production of anthra-

- cite, or "hard" coal, on the otherhand, is steadily declining due todwindling reserves and difficulty ofrecovery. Other forms of coal, suchas lignite and peat, are used in onlylimited amounts.

Most of the Natibea coal is minedin the Appalachian oreo that extendsfrom Pennsylvania through EasternOhio, West Virginia, Virginia, Ken-

'

Four typos of Naval us cool

4lucky, Tennessee, and 'Alabama.merge ameunts of coal also are mined

in Indiana, Illinoisdhand in the R kylalgantain States. -

a pas of Mines

Coal is either mined undergroundor extracted from the earth'asurface.Underground.mines employ. moat ofthe workers in the industry but pro-duce less than half of all.biturninouscoal. Surface mining, a more produc-tive type than underground mining,employs fewer mined to producemore coal.

The type of mine a company de-cides to open depends. on 'the geo-logical formation and the depth andlocation of the coal seam. Under-ground mines are used to reach coalthat lies deep below the surface. Aseries of entries must be constructedso that air, miners, and -equipment -can reach the seam and coal can becarried out. Depending on the depthof the coal seam, the' entry may bevertical (shaft mine), horizontal(drift mina), or at an angle (slopemine). (See chart.) Shaft mines areused to reach coal lying far below the

aurface. Drift and slope mines are,usually not as far underground asshaft mines_

After the coal seam has beenreached, nearIV. all undergroundmines are constructed the same way._Miners make a network of intercon-necting tunnels so that the mine re-sembles a maze with passagewaysgoing off in predetermined direct-tions, sometimes extending overmany Mile*. As coal is removed, thetunnels become longer and longer.Throughout this process; a signifi-cant amount of coal (pillars) is leftbetween the tunnels to support theroof_ When miners reach the end ofthe company's property, they startworking back toward the entrance, so

rbining most of the remaining coal asthey retreat. This js called retreatmining.

if the coal seam is not too farbelow round, surface_ mining ispracticed. Two types of surfacemines are strip and auger. At stripmines, huge machines remove theearth and expose the coal. Augermining is used to remove coal fromextremely steep hillsides. A large au-ger (drill) bores into the hill and pullsthe coal out.

Occupations In this Industry

In 1976 about 2.J 0,000 peopleworked in the bituminous coal andlignite mining industry. An additional.4,000 people were etna46ced bycompanies producing anthracitecoal, About S5 percent.of all personsin these industries were productionworkers who mined and processedcoal.

Mining jobs range from apprenticeminers who usually act as helpers inseveral occupations to highly skilledand experieoced miners who operateequipment worth several hundredthousancidollars. Jobs available in amine vary by type and method of

'.

Mining Occupations. Two basicmethods of mining undergroundcoal, conventional and continuous,account for 95 percent of .total un-dergrOund production. A third meth-od, longwall, rnaltes up most of theremaining production and is increas-ing in importance. The hand loadingmethod is rarely used.

Conventional mining is the oldestmethod and requires the most work-

era and procedures. Thiii type of min-ing, however, is rapidly being phasedout. In conventional mining_ , the cut-ting machine operator (D.O.T.930.883) uses a huge electriC chainsaw, with a cutter ranging in lengthfrom 6 to 15 feet, to cut a strip, orkerf, underneath the coal seam tocontrol the direction of the coal as itfalls after it has been blasted. Nextthe drilling machine operator (D.O.T.930.782) drills holes into the coalwhere the shot firer (D.O.T.931.281) places explosives;. Thiswork can be dangafrous and must betimed very carefully. The shot firer,for example, must allow enough timefor miners to leave the area beforethe blast.

After the blast, the loading ma-, chine operator (D.O.T. 932.8113)

scoops up and dumps the coal intosmall rubber-tired cars, which arerun by the shuttle car operator(D.O.T. 932.883 ). Depending on thetype of haulage system used, thesecars take the coal to a conveyor belt,for shipment to the main entry or tothesurface, or °rip mine cars thatare transported on tracks to the sur-face,

The continuous mining methodeliminates the drilling and blasting_operations of conventional mining.The continuous-mining machine op-erator ( D.O.T. 93©.883) sits or lies ina cab and operates levers to cut or ripout the coal and load it directly ontoa conveyor or shuttle cars.

Longwall mining is basically anextension" of continuous mining- Inthis method, the longwall machineoperator runs a huge machine withdrums which shear aOmutormaticallyload coal onto a -Conveyor_ At tbesame time hydraulic jacks reinforcethe roof. As the coal is cut and theface progresses, the jacks are hydrau-lically winched forward and the roofis allowed to cave behind.

Many other workers are requiredto run a safe and efficient under;ground mine. Before miners are al-lowed underground, the fire boss orpreshift examiner (D.O.T. 939.387)inspects the work area for loose roof,dangerous gases. and adequate venti-lation. If safety standards arc notmet, the the boss will not allow theminers'to enter. The rock -dust ma-

chine operator (D.O.T. 939.887)sprays limestone on the initial(and ground to hold down du at sincecoal dust is extremely explosive andinterferes with breathing.

r workers, not directlyin the mining processes, workround coal mines..for exam-lied repairers, called fitters

.T. 801.281), fix all 'types ofThe roof bolter (D.O.T. 930.883) ailing machinery. and electricians

operates a machine to install roof check- and install electrical wiring.support bolts. This operation is ex- Carpenters construct and maintain

fiches, bins, and stoppings. Manybattles and electricians assemble,

intain, and repair the machinesd in mines. While these workers

eel-ally need the same skills as theiraunterparts in other industries, they

tremely important because of the beever-present threat of roof cave -iris, mthe biggest cause of mine injuries.The stopping builder (D.O.T.869.884) constructs doors, walls, orpartitions in the passageways to forceair through the tunnels to awkiaz /require additional training to workareas. The supervisor, calledl a fore under the unusual conditions in theboss (D.O.T. 939.138), is in charge mines. Mechanics, for example, may

of all operations at the work site have to aepair machines while onwhere coal is actually mined. j

their knees with only their headlamp

Tealnwork is very important in aillf to illuminate the working area.types of underground mining. Miners Truekdrivers haul coal to railroad

are dependent upon each other when sidings or preparation plants and sup-

accidents occur for first aid and. if plies to the mine.

necessary, assistance in leavieg themine. A simple slip around 0 continuaous mining machine, for; example,could result in severed limbs.

Most surface miners operate thelarg machines that either removethe arth above the coal or dig andloa_ the chat, The number of work-ers equired to operate a surfacemine depends on the types of ma-chines used an e amount of ove r-bur abovq the coal seam, Themore overburden present, the great-er the number of workers usually re-quired.' In many strip mines, the overbur-den is first drilled and blasted. Thenthe overburden strippinapaator ordragline operator (D.O.T. 859.883)scoops the earth away to expose thecoal. Sometimes, a dragline is sohuge and complicated, to run that ateam of persons is required to oper-ate the levers.

Once the overburden is removed,the coed loading machine operator(D.O.T. 932.883) rips coal from theseam and loads the coal into trucksto he driven to the preparation plant.In auger mines, the rotary auger op-erator (D.O.T. 930.782) runs the ma-chine that pulls the coal from sides ofhills. Tractor operators (D.O.T.929.8831 drive bulldozers to moveMaterials or pull out imbedded boul-ders or other objects. Helpers assistin operating these machines.

Preparation Plt Occupations.Rocks and other tnpurities must beremoved before coal is crushed,sized, or blended to meet the buyer'swishes. These processes take place atthe preparation plant.

pany preparation plants are locat-ed next to the mine. T, plant's, sizeand number of employ a vary by theamount of coal processed and degreeof mechanization. Some plaj(ts haveall controls centrally located and re-quire few workers to oversee allwashing, separating, and crushingoperations. Among these workers isthe preparation plant central, controloperator (D.O.T 549.138) who over-

. sees all operations. Plants that arenot as mechanized, however, needworkers at each step, such as thewash box attendant (D.O.T. 541.782)and separation le nder (D.O.T.934.885 ). W ash boa attendants oper-ate equipment that sizes and sepa-rates impurities from coal. The sepa-ration tender operates a device thatfurther cleans coal with currents ofwater. Most jobs in the preparationplant are 'very repetitive.

Administrative, rofessional, Cleri-cal, and Technical Occupations. Awide range of administrative, profes-sional, technical and clerical person-nel work in the coal-industry At thetop of the administrative group are

executives who to all policy deci-sions. A staff of specialists, such asaccountants, attorneas. and markettesearclleas. supply legal, technical..and market it formation for deci-sionnsaking. Clerical and secretarialworkers &Mist the adrninistratiaestaff.

A variety of engleeeting and scien-tific peiionnel work in the coal in-dustry. Mining engineers (O.O.T.010.081, and .187) examine coalseams for depth and purity, deter-mine the type of mine to be built, end

thesupervbseane constructioo and main-tenance of mines. afechnnical engi-neers (00.T. 007.081, .151, .168,and .187) oversee the installation ofequipment, such as centralized heatand water systems, while safety engi-rseers (D.O.T. 010.081) are in chargeof all health and safety programs.

The scientific staff conducts re-search on means to make coal acleaner, more efficieht, and moreeasily transportable energy source.

. For instance, many physicists, chem-ists, and eetzlogists are studying feasi-ble alternatives for converting coalinto a gas or liquid.

Other technical personnel are re-quired to assist scientists and engi-neers. For example, surveyors(D.O.T. 018.188) help map out themining areas. Engineering and sci-ence technicians may assist in it-search efforts.

Training, Other Queliflcsend Advancer's

,Most miners start out as helpers toexperienced workers and learn skillson the job. Formal training, however.is becoming more important due tothe growing use of technologicallyadvanced machinery and miningmethods. As a result, most cornea-ni supplement on-the-job training

i formal programs and activelyseek recent graduates of high schoolvocational programs in mining, or ju-nor college or technical school pro-grams- /Ale technology.

Mine technology ,prograrnsavailable in a 'few colleges through-out the errantly, sootily in eoaiing areas. The programs lead eithertcr a cetificate in mine technologyafter I year.or an assoefite_ degreeafter 2 years. Courses 'cover areas

such as mine ventilation, roof bolt-ine. and machinery repairs. Prospec-aive students do -not need a highSchool education .bitt must pass' anentrance examination in basic Mathand English.

The type of formal training admin-istered by coal companies varies. Forexample, some'.companies havetraining mines where skills aretaught; others give classroom instruc-tion for a few weeks before allowingworkers into a mine. All minersworking at mines covered by. theUnited Mine Workers of Americacontract, however, must receive bothpreservice and annual retraining ses-kiorts frorn their employeri. Thesep ograms include subjects such as

chir41\operation, first aid, andhealth and safety regulations. TheU -S. Mining Enforcement and SafetyAdministration also conducts classeson health, safety, and mining meth-ods, and male machinery manufac-turers offer courses in machine op-eration and maintenance..

As`aniners' gain More experience,they can move to higher paying jobs.When a vacancy occurs, an an-notincernent is posted and all work-ers qualified may bid for the job. Amining machine operator's helper,for example, may become an opera-tor. The position is filled on the basisof seniority and ability. A small num-ber of miners advance to supervisorypositions and, in some cases, to ad-ministrative jobs in the office.

Miners must be at least 18 yearsold and in good physical condition. Ahigh school diploma is not required.All miners should be able to work inclose areas and have quick reflexes inemergencies.

Requirements for scientific andengineering. e administrative, andclerical jobs are similar to those inother industries. College graduatesare preferred for jobs in advertising,personnel, accounting, and sales. Forclerical and secretarial jobs, employ-ers usually hire high school graduateswho have training in stenography andtyping.

Employment Outlook

Coal is expected to play ancreasingly important role as a basicenergy source. Rising demand for

'electric power coupled with ate.ater._emphasis on develoPing dorraestic cnergy supplies should 'result in =cater-ated coal pioduetiorra The extent ofgrowth in production, Itowever, isuncertain. Oil, natural gas, and nil-clear energy also are used to gener-ate electricity, and the demand forcoal will `be determined, to some ex-tent, by the price and availability of

fuels, Growth in productionalso depends on how quickly eco-nomical methods of cnal gasifinionand liquification are developed. En-virenmental standards relating tostrip mining and the use of high sul-fur content 'coal, which causes airpollution, May Ow 'affect coal out-put. More coal. however, will lieneeded to make Wel, chemicals, andother products.

Einployment is expected to in-crease but the amount of growth willdepend on the level of preduction,on the types of mines op_eaed, a.nthe mining methods and machine'used. In addition to openings due-growth, several thousand opera gswill occur each year as experie edMiners retire, die, or transfert herfields 'of work..

Earnings and WorkinConditions

In 1976, union wage rate min-ers ranged from $48.62 ti 558.92 aday; workers in undergr nd minesgenerally earned slightly more than'those in surface mines o preparationplants. In comparison productionworkers in manufactu mg averaged$41.52 a day,

Because undergr and minersspend time travelin from the mineentrance to their w. king areas, theyhave a 'slightly Ion er day titan stir-face miners. Tho in surface- occu-pations work a 7 /4-hour shift ( 36-1/2-hour week), hile undergroundminers work an hour day (40-hourweek).

Union' mine receive to holidaysand 14 days paid vacation eachyear. As the ^ length of seevice in-creases, they/gain extra vacation daysup to a tor# I of 29. Union work-arsalso receiv benefits from a welfareand retir ent fund, and workerssufferin from pneumoconiosis(black I g) receive Federal aid.

and harshground:

dark, noisy. "andAar ties. several incbes'of wa-

ter may be on tunnel floors. Al-though mines -have electric lights,many areas are illuminated only bythe lights on the miners' caps. Work-ers in nainei with h-very low roofs haveto work on their hands and knees,backs, or, stomachs in cramped areas.

Though, safety cenditiops have improved considerably, miners mustconstantly be on guard for hazards.There also -is the risk of developingpneumoconiosis from coal dust andsilicosis; from the rock dust generatedby the drirstg in the mines. -Su

mnies and 'preparation plants are'uctsilly. less hazardous Own under-ground mines.

Sources of Additionalihformation

For details pbout job opportunitiesin mining, contact individual- Coalcompanies.- General information onmining occupatibns is available from:United Mine Workers of America. 900 15th

St. NW,. Washi p.c. 20005.National Coal Asa

NW.. Waohingt

Mining Enforcementma. n. De rartment

20240,

n. 1130 17th St.C. 20036.

Safety Administrh-Interior. Washington.

OCCUPATIONS IN THEELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY

Electh has become so much apart of deity lives that most peo-ple take it for granted. But just imag-ine not being able to ride the elevatorto your apartmeneand instead havingto walk up all those flights of stairs:Or think about having no lights, tele-vision set, or radio in your home. To-day, it would be difficult to get usedto living without electricity_

Bringingelectricity into our homesand'places of work and recreation isnot as simple, as just turning on aswitch. There are thousands of cm.-ployees working in the electric powerindustry to &lake all this possible.

Nature and Location of theIndustry

The delivery of electricity to usersit the instant they need it is theunique feature of the 'electric powersystems. Electricity cannot be storedefficiently but must be used as it is

pr uced. Because a customer canin or increase the use of electric

power at any time by merely flickingaswitch,' an electric utility system

/MA have sufficient capacity to meetpeak Consurnervieeds at any time.

An electric utility system includespowerplants that generate electric

= power, substations that increase' or'decrease the voltage, of the power,

and vast networks of transmissionand distributiOn lines, Electric utili-ties range from large systems servingbroad regional .areas to small powercompanies serving individual com-Munities, Most electric utilities areinvestor:owned (private) or ownedby cooperatives; o are owned bycities, counties: an lic utility disi

,

tricts, as well as_by the Federal Gov--ernrricia. While some utilities gener-

ate, trarifirtlit, and distridute onlyelectricity' others distribute both,'electricity _and gas. This chapter isconcerned with employment relatingortly tio the production ank distribu-tion of electric power. r

Producing and distributing large.quantities of electrical egorgy in-volves many processes and activities.The accompanying chart shows howelectric energy'is generated, and ho

ravels frog) the goneratifig-e_to the users. .

The lint step in providing deecal energy occurs in a generatingtioh or plant, where huge gene- oconvert mechanical energy into lee-trieite. Electricity- is produ pri-marily in steam-powered gen ratingplants that use coal, gas, oil, of nude=ar energy for fuel. In additio , a con-siderable amount of electric' y is pro-duced' in hydroelectric g nerating 'stations that use water po t r to op-erate the turbines. Still leer 'gener-ators, primarily for use/ in standby'

4service or to provide e ectricity forspecial purposes, are p ered by die-sel engines or gas turhines.

After electricity -is- generated, itpasses through a "switchyard,where the voltage is increased so thatthe electricity May travel long dis-tances without excessive loss of pow-er. Next the electricity passes ontotransmission lines that carry it from.the 'generating plant to substations,

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Jobs In ths si+scMc power Industry ore found throughout the caantri.

where the voltage is decreased acedpassed on to the distribution net-works serving individual customers.Transmission lines tie together thegenerating stations of a single systemand alv the power facilities of sever-al syearai. In this way, power can beinterchanged amOng several utilitysystems to meet varying demands.

lb 1976, 544,000 people worked inthe electric power industry. Most ofthen's, 461,000, worked in investor-

- owned -utilities. and cooperatives and80,400 worked in Federal and mu-nicipaL government utilities. A fewlarge .man scuffing establishments,which p duce electric power fortheir own use, also employ electricppwer workers.

Since electricity reaches almostlocality, j bs in this industry

are found throe pout the country.Although hyd electric power proj-ects have created jobs in relativelyisolated areas, most utility jobs stillare found in heavily populated urbanareas.

Electric Utility Occupations. Manydifferent types of workers are re-quired in the electric power industry.About 40 percent of the industry'semployees work in occupations relat-ed to the geheration, transmission,and distribution of electricity, and incustomer service occupatiohs.(These occupations are discussed indetail later in this chapter.) The in-

dustry also employs large numbers ofworken in engineering, scientific,,administrative, sales, clericil, andmaintenance pccupations. A. briefdiscussion on these octispationi isgiven below. Further information canbe found in statements covering indi-vidual occupations elsewhere in theHandbook

Engineering and ScienEngineers plan generating

plant construction and additions, ,in-terconnections of coniplfx powersystems, and installations of newtransmission and distribution systemsand equipment. They supervise con-

develop improved operaing methods, and test the efficiencyof the many types of electrical equip-ment. In planning modem power sys-tems, engineers help select plantsites,types of fuel, and types of plants. En-gineers also help industrial and corn-rneraial customers make the best useof electric power. For example, theymay demantrate how to modernize .a chemical manufacturing - plant orhow to remodel a store or hotel, sug-gesting changes that would use, elec-tricity more effectively.

Administrative and Clerical Occupa-tions. Because of the enormousamount of recordkeeping required,electric utilities employ many admin-istrative and clerical personnel..Large numbers of stenographers,typists, bookkeepers, office machineoperators, file clerki counting andauditing clerks, and are em-ployed. These workers p recordsof the services rendered b e com-pany, make up bilk for mers,and prepare a variety of sta eatsand statistical reports. An incramount of this work in the largerfices now is being performed by cputers. This generally results in moclerical work being done either byfewer or by the same number of em-ployees. The use of this equipmentalso creates a need for programmersand computer operators. Administra-tive employees include accountants,personnel officers, purchasingagents, and lawyers.

Maintenance Occupations. A consid-erable number of workewest, main-tain, and repair equipmiiit. 'The du-

es, skilled craft workers aresiniilar to those of maintenanceworkers in otheilndustries. It. May benecessary to, replace a switch ortransformer, for example, or ea,section in a toiler may hay berepaired. ,among the more importantskilled workers are electri6ans, in-strument repairers, industrial ma-chinery repairers, machinists, pipetit-ten, welders, and boilermakers.

Employment Outlook

Employment in The electric powerindustry is expected to increaseabout as fast as the average for allindustries through the mid-1980's.The greater use of electric power inindustrial processes, growth-of com-mercial centers such as shOPPingmalls, and population growth all willcontribute to ii increased demandfor electricity w-ver,-dise to thegrowing use automatic controls,employment ill not increase as fastas electric po r production.

Trends in gro th will differ fromone occupation to another in theindustry. The need for scientific, en-gineering, and technical employees isexpieed to increase sharply as con-struction of power generating plantsincreases and as reseaFch into devel-oping more efficient energy usage tocombat shortages and higher pricesof fossilMuch of th

Is becomes necessaryincrease in employment

wilt be tin th development and con-struction of new nuclear power lac ili-tied.

In many other occupations in thisindustry. only slight increases in err-ployrnent are expected_ Larger, moreefficient powerplants Will limitgrowth of employment or powerplantemployees. The increased use ofelectronic data processing equip-ment for billing and recordkeepingwill restrict growth in some clericaljobs. Ih occupations that will experi-ence little or no growth, most jobopenings will result from the need toreplace workers who die, retire, orleave the electric power industry forother reasons.

People hired by electric powercompanies are likely to have relative-ly secure jobs. Even during doivi-turns in the economy. these compa-nies seldom lay off employees.

Bimini and IfforkingConditions

Earnings in the electric utility in-dustry are relatively high. In 1976,

. nonsupervisory employees in privateelectric power companies averaged56.60 an hour. By compa;ison, theaverage for all nonsupervisory work-ers in private industry,' except farm-

icing was $4.87 an hour.Becathe supplying electricity is a

24-hour, 7-day-a-week activity, someemployees work evenings, nights,'and weekends, usually on rotatingshifts., Most union, contracts with

,electric utilities provide a higher rateof pay for evening and nightworkthan the basic day,rate:0- .

Overtime work often is required,especially' during emergencies suchas floods, hurricanes, Or storms. Dur-ing an "emergency callout," which isa short-notice requestsao report forwork during nonscheduled hours, theworker generally is guaranteed aminimum of 3 or 4 hoops' pay at1 1/2 times the basic hourly rate.Travel time to and from the job iscounted as worktime. ..

In addition to these provisions that

other emplo c benefits. Generally,51affect pay, e trio utilities provide

annual vacations are granted toworkers according to length of ser-vice. A typical contract or employeebenefit program provides for a I;week vacation for 6 months to 1 yearof service, 2 weeks for 1 to 10 years.

, and 3 weeks for 10 sp 20 years. Somecontracts and programs provide fo 4weeks after 18 years, 5 weeks after25 years, and 6 weeks after 30 years.The number of paid holid4s rangesfrom 6 to 12 a year. Nearly all com-panies have benefit plans for theiremployees. A typical program pro-vides life, hospitalization, and surgi-cal insurance and paid sick leave. Re-tirement pension plans supplementFederal social security payments andgenerally are paid for in full or in partby the employer.

Because of the dangers of electro-cution and other hazards, electricutilities and unions have made inten-sive efforts to enforce safe workingpractices This has resulted in an in-jury rate lower than in most manu-facturing industries. However, someoccupations, especially those on line-

crews, are more subject to accidentiothers.

nonsupervisory electric util-ity workers in production, trsion, d distribution sleptarc uni argaining _rep- sentative for most of these

1is -either the In ernationalBrotherhood of Electric I Workersor tits Utility Workers Union ofAmerica. Independent unions repre-sent some utility workers.

Betimes of AdditionalInformation

Information about- jobs in the elec-tric power industry is available fromlocal electric utility companies, fromindustry trade associations, or fromthe local offices of unions at repre-sent electric utility work rs. Addi-tional information also m y be ob-tained from:Ediaon Electric Institute. 90 Park

York N'Y 10016

International Brotherhood of Electrical -w kera, 11 23 15th St. NW Washington,20005.

e,, Ne

Utility Workers' Union of,,America. 815, 16thSt. NW.. Washington. D.C. 20006.

POWERPLANTOCCUPATIONS

Nature of the Work

Powerplants employ many differ-ent types of workers to produce elec-tricity. All equipment in the plantsmust be kept in good running order;thus the machinery must be regularly:,cleaned and serviced, and all opera-tions carefully checked acid con-trolled. maintenance personnel, in-cluding eletrical, instrument, andmechanical repairers, inspect and re-pair this equipment. For example, aninst nt repairer may notice that aga onnected to a turbine doesnot gister properly. The repairermay disassemble the gauge, locatethe specific problem, and replace apart if necessary

Other power-plant workers includehelpers and cleaners, and the custo-dial staff, including janitors andguards. In steam` generating plants

using dial Ow fuel, coal handlers alsowe employed. hi hydroelectriclants, gate tenders open and cleat

headgates that control the flow oftiter to turbines. Supervision ofwerplant operations ii hindled by

chief engineers called operations thr-:pervisors, and by their assistants,watch engineers (also called shift su-pervisors).

rators are the key workers in apowerplant. They include four basicclasses of workersswitchboard,boiler, turbine, and auxiliary equip-ment operators. Their job is to ob-serve and regulate the various kindsof powerplant equipment, keep rec-ords of all operations to make certainthat equipment functions efficiently,and to detect any trouble that mayarise. In this way, operators ensurethat power production will not be in-terrupted..

Switchboard operators (D.O.T952.782) control the amount of elec-tric power flowing froni generators tooutgoing powerlines by watching in-strument panels and by operatingswitchboards. Switches conyol themovement of electric currentthrough the generating station cir-cuits and onto the transmission lines.Instruments mounted on panelboardsshow the power demand on the sta-tion at any instant, the powerload oneach line leaving the station, theamount of current being produced byeach generator, and the voltage.

The operators use switches to dis-tribute the power demands amongthe generators, to combine the cur-rent from two or more generators,and to regulate the flow of the elec-tricity onto various powerlines ac-cording to the changing needs ofconsumers. When power require-ments change, they order generatorsstarted of stopped and, at the propertime, connect them to the power cir-cuits in the station or disconnectthem. In doing this, they follow tele-phone orders from the load dispatch-er who directs the flow of currentthroughout the system,

Switchboard operators and theirassistants also check their instru-ments frequently to see that electric-ity is moving through and out of thepowerplant properly, and that cor-rect voltage is being maintained.

Among their other duties, they keeprecords of all switching operationsand of load conditions on ghnerators,lines, and, transformers. They obtainthis information by making regularmeter readings.

Boiler operators (D .O.T .

950.782)employed only in steam-powered generating plantsare re-sponsible for maintaining the propersteam pressure needed to turn theturbines. They note and regulate thefuel, air, and water supply used in theboilers using control valves, meters,and other instruments which aremounted on panel boards. The size ofthe generating unit determines thenumber of boilers used; thus a boileroperator may be responsible for op-erating one or several boilers.

Turbine operators (D.O.T.952.138) control the turbines thatdrive the generators. In small plants,they also may operate auxiliaryequipment or a switchboard. Sincemodern steam turbines and gener-ators operate at extremely highspeeds, pressures, and temperatures,the operator must give close atten-tion to the preisure gauges, ther-mometers, and other instrumentsshowing the operations of the turbo-generator unit. Turbine operatorsrecord the information shown bythese instruments and check the oilpressure at bearings, the speed of theturbines, and the circulation andamount of cooling water in the con-densers that change the steam back

I b

into water. They also are responsiblefor starting and shutting down theturbines and generators, as directedby the switchboartl operator in thecontrol room. Other workers, such ashelpers and junior operators, assistthe turbine operators.

Auxiliary equipment operators(D.O.T. 952N2) check and recordthe readings of instruments that indi-cate the operating condition ofpunitis, fans, blowers, condensers,evaporators, water conditioners,compressors, and coal pulveriters.Precise operation of this machineryis directly related to the proper func-tioning of boilers and turbines. Foreaample. after steam goes through

due turbines, it enters the condensers.Here the steam becomes water. Thisoperation of the condensers providessomg of the force that drives the tur-binesf Since auxiliary equipment mayoccasionally break down, these op-erators must be able to detect troublequickly, and sometimes make minorrepairs. In small plants which do notemploy auxiliary equipment opera-tors, these duties are performed byturbine operators.

In most powerplants constructedin recent yearsincluding nuclearthe operation of boilers, turbines,auxiliary equipment, and the switch-ing required for balancing generatoroutput has been centralized in a sin-gle control room. From here, centralcontrol room operators (D.O.T.

Operator and record the readings of Instruments.

950.782) er po lent operatorsregulate- the erati*eqpip-ment, which in of ex plantretquiresspecialfsts such as boiler and turbineoperators. Control room operatorshave several 'assistants who patrol theplant and check the equipment.When equipment is not operatingproperly, operators report problemsto the plant superintendent or awatch engineet.

Watch engineers or shift supervi-sors (D.O.T. 950.131) oversee theworkers in the pciwerplant who oper-ate and maintain the boilers, tur-bines. generators,. transformers, -switChboarda-, and other machineryand equipment. Watch engineers aresupervised by a chief engineer or aplait superintendent who is in chargeof doe entire .plant. In small plants,the watch engineer also may be thegeneral plant supervisor.

Generally, a nuclear-poweredplant requires about the same kindand number of employees as a steam-generating plant powered by coal.However, nuclear plants employ afew additional employees such ashealth and safety specialists.

Training, Other Qualifications,and Advancement

New powerplant workers generallybegin at the bottom of the ladder

,usually on cleanup jobs. Such workgivek beginners an opportunity to be-come familiar with the equipmentand the operations of a powerplant.They -advance to the more respon-sible job of helper as openings fiCC U r.Formal apprenticeships in these jobsare uncommon. Applicants generallyare required to have a high school orvocational school education.

It takes from 1 to 3 years to be-come qualified as an auxiliary equip-ment operator and fran 4 to 8 yearsto become a boiler operator, turbineoperator, or switchboard operator. Aperson learning to be an auxiliaryequipment operator progresses fromhelper to junior operator to operator.A boiler operator generally spendsfrom 2 to 6 months as a laborer be-fore being promoted to the job ofhelper. Depending on openings andthe worker's aptitude, the helper mayadvance to junior boiler operator andeventually to boiler operator, or

,

transfer to the maintenance depart--ment anr:vork up to boiler repairer.-Turbine operators advance from theranks of auxiliary equipment opera*_tors.

Where a utility system has a num-ber of generating plants of differentsize, operators usually first get, expe-riende in the 'al/alter stations andthen are promoted to jobs in the larg-er stations as vacancies occur. Thus,.how rapidly a worker advances alsomay depend on the availability ofopenings. If these are few, it maytake longer to obtain a particular jobthan just to learn it.

In many States and large cities,employees who operate equipment inpowerplants must be licensed by lo-cal or State agencies. While licensingrequirements often vary froth placeto place,- the National Institute forthe Uniform Licensing of Power En-gineers (NIULPE) is attempting tostandirdize these requirements.

Some powerplant workers em-ployed in atomic-powered electricplants must have special training towork with nuclear Wel, in addition tothe knowledge and skills required forconventional' steam-generated elec-tric power. All cone' of room opera-tors, assistant control rotim opera-tors, and some operators of highpressure auxiliary equipinent in nu-clear powerplants must be licensedby the Nuclear Regulatory Commis-sion.

New workers in the switchboardoperators section begin as helpers,advance to junior operators, andthen to switchboard operators. Someutility companies promote substationoperators to switchboard operatingjobs. The duties of both classes ofoperators have much in common.Switchboard operators can advanceto work in the load dispatcher's of-fice.

Watch engineers are selected fromamong experienced powerplant op-erators_ At least 5 to 10 years of ex-perience as a first-class operator usu-ally are required to qualify for awatch engineer's job.

Employment Outlook

Employment of powerplant opera-tors is expected to increase moreslowly than the average for all occu-

pations through the mid-1980's, eventhough the -production of 'electricalenergy will increase at a rapid rate.Although some new jobs will becomeavailable, most job openings will oc-cur because of the need to replace'workers who retire, die, or leave theindustry for other work. People hiredb'y electric power companies are like-ly to have _relatively secure jobs.Even durip,downtqrns in the econ-omy thesis d6mpanles seldom lay off-employees.

Because of the increased demandfor electric power, it will be neces-sary to build and operate many newgenerating stations. The use of largerand more efficient equipritent, how-ever, will result in a great increase incapacity and production riiithoutcorresponding increase in the num-ber of powerplant operators. For ex-ample, it takes only one turbine op-erator to control a turbo-generatorregardless of the generator's size.Also, automatic equipment makes itpossible to control several boilersfrom a-central control room.

Earnings and WorkingConditions

The earnings of powerplant workers vary by occupation and locality_The following tabulation shows esti-mated average hourly earnings forselected poweiplant occupations inprivately owned utilities in 1976.

Averagehourly

earnings

Auxiliary equipment operator . . $5.66Boiler operator._... 7.44Control room operator, 8.26Switchboard operator:

Switchboard operator, Clams A.. 7.56Switchboard operator, Class B 7.03

Turbine operator .. ... 7.26Watch engineer 8.67

A powerplant is typically well-lighted and ventilated, clean, and or-derly, but there is some noise fromthe equipment.

Switchboard operators ip the con-trol room often sit at the panelboards, but boiler and turbine opera-tors are almost constantly on theirfeet. The work of powerplant opera-tors generally is not physicallystrenuous, particulatly in the new

9

1p_ werPlantsi Since generating stab

iii operate 24 hOurs a day, 7 days aweek, some powerplant employeestrust] work nights and weekends. usu-ally nn rotating shifts.

as of Additionalintimation

For information concerning licens-ing of powerplant employees, con-tact State and local occupational li-censing ageocies in your area orwrite to:

National Institute for Uniform Licensing ofPower Engineers, 176 W. Adam Si. Suite1914, Chicago, III. 60603.

TRANSMISSION ANDDISTRIBUTIONOCCUPATIONS

Nature of the Work

.Q,ne-fourth of the workers in theelectric poweri industry are in trans-mission and distribution jobs. Thisph--ase of the utility system links theellctric power tiroduked in generat-

' ing plants toindividual customers ac-cording to their needs. The principalworkers in these jobs are those whocontrol the flow of electricityloaddispatchers and substation opera-torsand employees who constructand maintain powerlinesline in-stallers and repairers, cable splicers,troubles ground helpers, and labor-ers.

Load dispatchers (D.O.T.9-50.168), also called system opera-tors or power dispatchers, controlthe flow of electricity throughout thearea served by the utility. They oper-ate the plant equipment used to gen-erate electricity and direct_ its flow.The load dispatcher's source of infor-mation for the entire transmissionsystem is the pilot board. This board,which dominates the load dispatch-er's room, is a complete map of theutility's transmission system. It en-ables the dispatcher to determine, ata glance, the existing conditions atany point in the system. Often lightsare connected to the pilot board,

10

which show the positions of switchesthat control generating equipmentand transmission circuits, as well ashigh-voltage Connections with sub-stations and large industrial custom-ers. The board also may.have metersand. several recording instrumentsthat make a graphic record of opera-tions for future analysis and study.

Because it takes some time tochange the level of electricity beingproduced, the load dispatcher mustanticipate power demands so that thesystem will be prepared to meetthem. Power demands on utility sys-terns may change from hour to hour.A sudden afternoon rainstorm, forexample, may cause a million lights

switched on in a matter of min-utes. Dispatchers telephone instruc-tions to the switchboard operaitors atthe generating plants and the substa-tions, telling them when to start orstop additional boilers and gener--ators so that power production willbe in balance with power needs.

Dispatchers also direct the han-dling of any emergency situation,such as transformer or transmissionline failure, and route current aroundthe affected area. They also may be/

/in charge of interconnecting theirutility system with other systems anddir cting transfers of current be-wen systems as the need arises.

Substation operators -(D.O.T.952.782) generally are responsiblefor the operation of the step-up orstep-down substations. A step-upsubstation usuallyis located adjacent,to the powerplant to raise the voltageof the electricity so it can travel longdistarices. A step -down substation, atthe other end of the transmissionlines, reduces power voltagebefore itis sent out to the customer. Underorders from the load dispatcher,these operators use a sw hboard todirect the flow of current out of thestation. Ammeters, voltmeters, andother types of instruments registerthe amount of electric power flowingthrough each line. The flow of elec-tricity from the incoming to the out-going lines is controlled by circuitbreakers. The -substation operators,using switchboard levers thatasontrolthe circuit breakers, connect orbreak the flow of cilrrent In-some

substations, where alternating cur-rent is changed to direct current tomeet the needs of special users, the000tatcor -controls converters whichperform the change.

In. addition to switching duties,substation operators check the oper-ating condition of all equipment tomake, sure that it is working properly.They supervise the activities of theother sulVtation employees on thesame shift: In smaller substations, theoperator shay be the only employee.

Some utilities employ a mobile op-erator %silo drives from one automat-ic station to another, inspecting pow-erlines; operating controls, and as-sisting customers' electricians inlarge commerical or governmentalinstallations. -

Line insta ers and repairers.;(Dp.T. 821.3 I ) make up the larg-est single occupationlin the industry.They construct and maintain the net-work of powerlines that carries elec-tricity from generating plants to con-sumers.

Installers bolt crossarms to transmiision poles and then bolt or clampinsulators in place on the crossarrns.Next, they raise wires and cables andattach them to the insulators. Otherequipment, such as lightning arres-tors, transformers, and switches, alsomust be attached to the poles. Anyroutine maintenance and replace-ments necessary are performed byline installers and repairers,'

When wires, cables, or polesbreak, it means an emergency call fora linecrew. Line repairers splicessrreplace broken wires and cables andreplace broken insulators or otherdamaged equipment. Most installersand repairers now work from -buck-et" trucks with pneumatic lifts thattake them to the top of the pole atthe touch of a lever.

In some power companies, line-crew employees speCialize in particu-lar types of work. Thse, in one crewmay work on new construction only,and others may do only repair work.

Trouble shooters (D.O.T. 821.281 )are experienced line installers andrepairers who are assigned to specialcrews that handle emergency calls.They move from one job to another,as ordered by a central service officethat receives reports of line trouble.

Lisa Installers cons

-a0

eting underground electric power lines.

Often troubleshooters receive theirorders by direct radio communica-tions with the central service office.

To do this job well, these workersmuse have a thorough knowledge ofthe company's transmission and dis-tribution network. Upon reaching_the location of the break, they firstfind and report the source of trouble,and then attempt to-restore serviceby making the necessary repairs. Forexample, depending on the natureand extent of the -problem, trouble-tshooters may have to install newfuses or cut down live wires: Theymust be familiar *ith all the circuitsand switching points so that they cansafely disconnect live circuits whenlines break down.

Grofind helpers (D.O.T. 821.887)assist in constructing, repairing, andmaintaining the transmission and dis-tribution lines. For example, they digpole holes, and then help the lineinstallers.,and repairers raise thepoles while positioning th theholes.

Cable splicers (D.O.TO.T. 829381 )supervise the installation of insulatedcables on utility poles and towers, aswell as those buried undergroundand those carried in undergroundconduits. When cables are installed, .

these workers direct the laying of theconduit and the pulling of the cablethrough it. The cables are joined atconnecting points in the transmissionand distribution systems. At each

connectionor break in the sys-terninsulation is wrapped aroundthe wiring and the cable is sealedwith lead sheathing. Most of thephysical work in placing new cablesor replacing old ones is done by la-borers.

Cable splicers spend most of theirtime repairing and maintaining ca-bles and'changing the layout of thecable systerns. They.must know thearrangement of the wiring systems,where the circuits are connected,and where they lead to and comefrom. When making repairs, theyrntist make sure that the continuity ofeach line is maintained from the sub-station to the customer's premises.Cubic splicerscheck insulatiopsure it is in good

also periodicallyon cables to makecondition.

Training, Other Qualifications,and Advancement

Load dispatchers are selected fromexperienced switchboard operatorsand from operators of large substa-tions. Usually, 7 to 10 years of expe-rience as a senior switchboard orsubstation operator are required forpromotion to load dispatcher. Toqualify for this job, an applicant musthave thorough knowledge of the en-tire utility system. Substation opera-tors generally begin as assistant orjunior operators. Advtncement to

the job of operatOr in a large substa-tion requires from 3 to 7 years of on-the-job training.

About 4 years of on-the-job train,in are needed to qualify as a skilledline-installer and repairer. New work-ers usually begin training as groundhelpers, and assist the line installers ,

and repairers. For example, they mayhelp set poles in place or 1:lass toolsand equipinent. Some companieshave formal apprenticeship programsfor line employees. Apprenticeshipprograms combine on-the-job train-

, ing with classroom instruction inblueprint reading, elementary elec-trical theory, electrical codes, andmethods of transmitting electricalenergy. After about 6 months, ap-prentices begin to do simple lineworkunder close.supervision, and progcessto more difficult work as they gainexperience. A line installer and re-pairer may advance to troubleshoot-er after several years of experience.

Candidates for linework should bestrong and in good physical conditionbecause climbing poles and liftinglines and equipment is strenuous.They also must have steady nervesand good balance to work at the topof the poles and to avoid the hazardsof live wires and falls,

Most cable splicers get their train-ing on the job, usually taking aboul 4years to become fully qualWorkers begin as helpers and thenare promoted to assistant or juniorsplicers. In these jobs, they are as-signed more difficult tasks as theirknowledge of the work'Increasss.

Employment Outlook

Several thougand job opportunitiesare expected to be available in trans-mission anddistributiop occupationsth rough the mid-1980's. ost ofthese opportunities will occur be- -cause of the need to replace experi-enced workers who retire, die, ortransfer to other fields of work.Workers hired by electric pow ercompanies are likely to have relative-ly secure jobs. Even during down-turns in the economy. these compa-nies seldom lay off employees_

Some increase in the employmentof transmission and , distributionworkers is expected, although ern-

.I I

pleyment trends will differ amongthe various occu pations in this eate-gpry. In spite of tike need t constructarid maintain a rapidly growing num-ber of transmission and distributionlines, the number of line installersand repairers and troubleshooters is

expected to -increase only slightly be-cause of the use-of more reechanizedequipment. A linriited increase in thenumber of cable splicers is expectedbeenusepf the grewing use of under-ground lines in sinbur ban areas. Theneed for regular substation opera-tors, how-ever, w ill be reduced sub-stantially, since the introduction LYtimproved and mo re auttorn line equip-m&nt-,rnalkes it possible to operatemore substations by remote control

Earnings lend AVortkingCOnelltlo tit

Wages tear trasismision and zilch tbution workers vary I.)), "ccut.,atiosiand geographic rhe following tabulation shows estirn wed =average hourly ea.intrigs reit- ni aior inns,mission and distri huric.in 0.1,;(sup.Allonnin privately owned utihnrs in 1976

I

italic, .1 6c.iitraill .

pie Nil rrutAndr 11,,,

and repairuis trorubk, sIntoacts andground helpers w.--1111/4 .tutddoors, andin emergencies, tro.y w,),k all kindsof weather Cable spliers d c, rric,st oftheir wurk heticart city Sit eels utten in an& peed quoiter s SAtity ,tanlards developed elver inc yea,- sutility Lunt pan ics will. the soop,ta vlion ut labor u n y.luccd the ha.Lack_ft, 1 (11G:AC I C,1,N I/

Voikecs7 st, inging high , altagc linesfor reiaMplc, protect hywearing rubber r gl.uves AL,50.". ix at i I

odes and spec:the ogi,s ustt

ally are pnsted w hcre wkorkci:,, layc:onJuits or run a Ares 41ildigi,_36,(131

TOMER SE IRViCEOCCUPA110 NS

pritu ore of the Work

Workers in customer service occu-pations include people wh read-, in-stall, test, arid repair me ters so tlitthe utility company can accutaterycharge custoriters for their consump-tion of ele ctric pswer- A tso includedare workers who represent the utilitycornpany in rural areas, and appli-ance rapaiterti,wria %.cork, in

locomma-,

ny -ope rated shops, ti ling- customerselectrical equiPment.

Lire-Inc meter repairers tf.) T29.28 I) are the most skilled work -

ers in this group Their ruin dutiesare tQ maintain and repair meters,although they also ntay install tined

test meters Sonic of these ..sorl4ersspettal lie it, r cpa lung sitriplr typesof ineuers A [rinse in lionics-:Oilrcis cats h4,31141be 411 IkICLIS of inctels,111.141Cliiig the Hit, rc 4_4J1111J11k.eIcd

low!, uticd in i ndu shi=t plants twhicreIdigc b ads, titles or de triea 140 ec.:onsanied. Often, sortie of the large_-systott,-, st),Ialists s.u,,h, asflirt, I..ir ..111c ( () I hl' I 3

anct Lc INC :clad,,,e4 A (1, t.) f /29 28 I )

o1 t) I 1 39 'Pin. ',IN,. A i4=4 vti kk she

2

ltai§to*,, ga, it auitev ticnuke lusQg fd 164tricity usehu.,

IA

meters that register the amount ofelectric energy used They record theamount used during the current-bill-ing period and watch for, and report,any tampering, with meters.

fistricI renresen la rives usuallyserve as company agents in outlyingdistricts that are too small to justify jamore specialized workers and in loocalities where the utility companydoes not have an office. They collectoverdue bills; make minor repairs;and read, connect, and disconnecttiyetcrs, They receive service com-plaints and reports of line troublefrom customers, and send them to acentral office.

Appliance repairers are discussed inseparate chapter elsewhere in the

ift-lari.dbo-ok

Trail 9, Othei Qualifications,and AO/armament

vi beet l epai reel begin their Juba astocIpers in the meter testing and re-pair de partinents Persons enteringthis field should have a basic knowl-edge of electricity. About 4 years ofal tile Job tialyng are required tofyeeorne thoroughly familiar with alltypes cn repairs Some 4.,;01111painleNI. aVc LA 11141 apprenticeship prop aimif iii w1101 the trainee progiesses ae-

yeLitic planInexporier,ced workers

ea.& is after a tclov vaceks wittraining- Beginners acconvany thee ieric.ed Viet Ci I cplei viii the

(bey I.,.AzC iccl theILA

1,, .[A1,1 , ....IF

II -cc 415.4.1 j kJ, t) Nit.411. Ittib4ltu,1 t. I tests u,

p t oil_is die ability lo ric41 t4..lfoilyith the public in lialailing service

coinylan,ts and -uolleting ,,verdtiehills

r- 44,16it.s,

I. s. _1

1115 lei Stl 14., It callchile t udgti the mitt 198need fu, meter is will rte 111,1 tell

of the bend d less ticis tidings Moreover. at.toloatie

in tci- reading may bc,;ome more0,17111I13441 and new HICECIS will ic

quire less maintenance. However,some job ope '-gs for meter repair-ers and meter c ders will occur eachyear because of the need to replaceworkers who retire, die, or transfer toother fields of work. People hired byelectric power companies are likelyto have relatively secure _jobs. Evenduring downturns in ttr6 economy,these companies seldom lay off em-ployees

Earnings and WorkingConditions

The earnings of customer serviceworkers. vary according to t he type ofjob they have and the section of thecountry in which they work. Thefollowing tabulation shows estimatedaverage hourly earnings for majorcustomer service jobs in privatelyowned utilities in 1976

=

OCCUPATIONS IN THENUCLEAR ENERGY FIELD,

Nuclear energy is a source of heatand radiation that .-art be used tkapeaceful as well as chilitary purposesAlthough petaceful applications havebeen expanding rapidly in recentyears, they are still in the early stagesof development Continuing rcseafchand development programs will heneeded during the next Several oecodes try find newek safe( amts s

efficieruCways of utilizing tins energy.In 1976 about 300000 people

worked iii nuclear energy a, iivittesMost were employ ed in iric designand c,igineci tug ofand iii the developotent main,faLlt-itt, of nuclear Wcap,nN ..1dclear icactois and theirMany vicisimh also, vvci ccsc Al +and vi nt14

energy Most cite, y u .31

ale N4,.:111Llat3 tAlmnick 1-,1,1.1( 1.15,

41111

,gy it the pt,a1t, tin , 1.

by nircieai ,cacto,s: ie art. I) l.i dose_by reactors now genet at es Ace tifiji many t.JnOhLulltics SC I CaL

tors have tnec0111e e4j11r A)C. tit toes vvlthsyst,ilis 'tat u,c ticoal and c,ai 19/ 7were 65 1,t14.,1C., i._aLtkA 115 , k,..1515a4

,-1ad op.. a11011 A howen_ elute', In tine plans*vole being f(m511, 11,1cta Lettalpose ,tuelcai power desat, nig plainswhicii would at the same tube piovide a new sourr,e 01 fresh walc. sailClei.A114:, power, are being !...,ttichea

N ncle a ala*, pt_at,

ajar In GS a1ld 5111 la .vessels byeliminating refueling, nuclear propulsion extends the range and mobility of our naval forces

AlthOugh, cx15LIng lCnd.. tuA , .11g,rierate huge oil-aunties Lit powertRYin a small a 4111L tit 1114 ariluM7

1I51.111- cirielent leactoi s may be Iliopel.,luir by th. In 1980's Vaititerin the future, controlled fusion reac=ti/1 provide an even more eff1

method of ot-..111titIgity

,,it .11.1 ,1

51 Amy is Iii rt use lit 1,111,0, ft adi,xl.ji.ijle.s e.1115 1ad1

.41.1.ak Oka, spc.,tal lush ut.ic Ins 511.1,ciN 01 is_ klIt gaagez, t.,an detest and

.11t.atAc. cbcaA,ii LA), aa 115 51, 1

1,11151CW/31 at.ltIics 4%11,511151.0 , .11C111

uhf inalustn y

it.PruAlio ed

/as, I. g

it1C,1143j :aL

I. y 1Z tI2.a1km II 1115 .11,1;

iii1.115,g 11 at1111111 at- 1_1111E0141AM Ii,111t1

try 1C1J11 bolabardrneni W dellolatted from this tission

in..-=csa ,Atic I fiti,11 411

(het Firs It .15 Ica, a place curdt.,,) salt_ I11 i

Alain 11,114a. 1115,, +,-11..1 5

that it rise volt ,i)1111

rtrI -1,1i 11s,

( 01,11 OIL:Li ti.siu ,,, it.,i. attic ..or

11G,1

I he

reactor is like a furnace, and needsfuel to operate. The principal source,material for reactor fuel is uranium235. Uranium in ifs natural state con-tains less than I percent of readily'fissionable material, U-235. Al-though natural uranium sometimes isused as reactor fuel, a more concen-trated and enriched fuel can be pro-duced by increasing the proportionof U-235 isotopes through a processcalled gaseous diffusion. The rate offission and energy produced in a nu-clear reactor usually is controlled byinserting special neutron-absorbingrods into the fuel chamber or "core.'t

When nuCiear energy is used com-mercially for power, the heat gener-ated must be converted to electricityby conventional power equipment.The major difference between nude-al and vonventional thermal electricpower stations is that the steam todi ivc tor hines cpules lion) a illidearreactor _rather than from convention-al power sources, (Nee accompany-ing .:hart

because Ili,. ifs) tc4,tial fiaLaldsritnuclear radiation, special radiation-teststant inatcrials are used in reac-tors, and extensive safety measuresat kcn to protccc pcisaiinei

111,a1,1. oil Ilk 114.4/ /*I uyF

A ,..1al ac,orots requirui 1 ars+tiat,11.,11 atll kis, t,r a(t.,,Ical clic'

6), klicsc the cc1/1+ lliug and i el ittag irianiurn bearing ore.:, theIlls .111 (Ion of 111,,k,al isle IN, 1, tic

c of I

lain _.. iii pli ne -its aliii inALICdt ltipiodoetu,tt oh spe aal

inatenals i,ar U.:4C ili reacuces, the design engincning and ,;9nhtructioiktjf aclear facilities; the operationand main re, lance of 11110Goi rt4c to IS%

the disposal of adl,Jisott,pcs, the11k111 nil weal-15,11 s, and

reseal, ti velopt..erit 'workThese activities takc piece in v ,A5

1..tns ty F.,3 t4 taQ1111,ics Sonic is arksuch as iii IsA iug and 111111,.4 rnistaAtaL

Ealing lie at transfer equip/lent, and,onstiocting Facilities, differs littlelion' similar work in other tICIdS_

13

Nuclear reactor generating electricity

Other activities, however, such asproducing fuels needed to run rear=tors. are unique to the fl %IC kat crier gyfield.

The Federal ocivernment supportsabout half of the basic nuclear cue(gy activities, although private support has been increasing The t.l SEnergy Research and DevelopmentAdministration (E.R.DA ) directs theFederal-Cloven-Merit's nuclear ellergy research program, and the Nudear Regulatory ComuliS51&_/11 ( NilC ')controls the use of eructed] inaterialsby private organizations I he °pc, aLion of EKD A owned t itiduding laburaLouies, ti

eesstng plants, nuclear reactors,weapons nianufactui mg plants. iscontracted to private co, poratio,.sMost of these operations involve research into the expansion of medicaland industrial applications of nu. clearenergy and the advancement of (code-tor tectinclogres.for generating Bledtricity. Production of nuclear mate!'als for civilian] needs is also bone insonic of these facilities

Privately owned faciirrie .11

types of nuclear energy work earfor the development and productionof military weapons and certain nuclear fuel-processing operationsSonic research is car-lied out independently by colleges and univercities and by nonprofit organizations

14

Occur none In the NuclearEnergy Field

ntuktit4.rattw.,il.crs account for

higher proportion of total employ=men( I.i this field than in most others,Iri ai(r)y tleCatisC (Mich of the work isstill In the research and developmentphase ()trice personnel in admix-usuati,e auj clerical tons represent another harg ig,otip Most of the remainder are semiskilled andu,iskinca wvoI. .rs 111,,olved in prodiction operations, plant protection.ytrd acre

A 1111,,ugh I vv,,Ik 1,16the sikl. !cal energy field are

nuclea, technology, cilgiaii,ed in Usher branches also

ore ci,rpluyctl Nickhisfilk;di engineersale the largest Angle group, but manyele,,trical and electronic, chemical.civil and metallurgical engineersalso uork I.r this field Many of thesecughtects do research and develop-'nem work, others de-sign nuclear rea(A0i 0. nuclear instruments, and orbei equipment

Research al"( la aria &Jakethat do nuoiew ,nergy

work employ sc_ternists iii basic andapplied nuclear research Most arephysicists and Oren-lists. but mathe

biological scientists, andmetallurgists also do nuclear energyresearch

Large numbers of engineering andscience technicians, drafters, and ra-diation monitors assist the engineersand scientists in conducting researchand in designing awl, testing equip-ment.

Many highly skilled workers buildequipment for experimental and pilotwork and maintain the complexequipment and machinery. Manymaintenance mechanics and all-round machinists work in most nu-clear energy activities, as do electri-cians, plumbers, pipefitters, and oth-er craft-workers and chemical-process operators.

Activltiei. In the Nuclear EnergyField

The following sections briefly de-scribe sonic major nuclear energy ac-trvities and their workers.

Urr riiurn Exploration and MiningThe 9.500 people employed in urani-um exploration and mining in 197frhad jobs similar to those in mining ofother metallic ores. They mainlywork in the Colorado Plateau area ofthe Far West, in the States of NewMexico, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado,and Arizona_ A relatively small num-ber of mines account for the bulk ofproduction and employment. Mostworks in uranium mines are in pro-duction Jobs Among them are miners and drillers in underground minesand truckdrivers, bulldoier operators. and machine loaders at open pitmines Scientists and engineers-ruining_ engineers, (eulogists alsowork iii uranium exploration andmining

Mill4fAs hi i,. .1,111,11

1-11111N, rallta gical a,. i dhcrn calprocesses are used to extract urani-um from mined ore. Uranium mills.located primarily in the ColoradoPlateau, employed about 1,700workers in 1976.

These mills employ skilled machin-ery repairers, millwrights. pipefitters,carpenters, electricians, and chern0cal-proceis operators. A small pro-portion of those working in millingoperations are scientists and engi-neer'

Uranium Refining and Enriching.Milled uranium is chemically pro-cessed to remove impurities and isthen converted to metal or interme-diate chemical products conr reactorfuel preparation. CorrVentionalcherilical and metallurgical processesare used, but they must meet moreexacting standards than in most otherindustries. The output of refiningplants may be further processed toobtain enriched uranium.

Activity in this segment of the nu-clear energy field is centered in Ohio,Tennessee, Kentucky, and Illinois In1976 uranium refining and enrichingplants employed about 1 1,8(1(1 %yolk-ers.

Maintenance craftwo'rkers, particularly in the highly automated unaniunn enriching plants, constitute alarge proportion of skilled workers inthis area. Many chemical-process operators also are employed Moreone-third of the engineers and scien-tists are chemical engineers andchemists.

Heat- iQr fitAjti 140,27,800 people were employra in thedesign and manufacture of naciearreactors and reactor pat Is iii 1976Reactor manufacturers do extensivedevelopment work on lea_toisauxiliary equipment ir gcne,allybuild most of the intricate Cu,iiponests, such as fuel elements controlrods, and leacaor Wires

Over one-third of thetin us that design ,..nd ulantth.1,_tt,icreactors arc sklieithsts, 1.1gilrcer, midbee hinc ians Engineer a alone iC rsent nearly one 41.1,11tc Or Lii ct

plop-vent, Must ace ineul.aut,..11._itgiveers and engineers who sperialree iureactor technology Assisting_ theseengineers and _ale ni..S is are on anydrafters and engineering tech_nicralisReactor manufacturers employskilled workers, mostly all-round machinists, in experimental, prod t

and maintenance work Nuclear leactor operators also are ,3111)10yed (t)operate experimental arid test reetors.

React°, OficrallurtAbout 13,000 woi Kers operated alaimaintained nuclear rea. tors in 1976Nuclear power stations employ reacfor operators, mechanical, electrical

and 'electronic ,engineers, instrumentand electronic technicians, and radi-ation monitors-. Machinery and in-strument repairers, electricians, andpipefitters maintain and repair thereactors.

Research and Development Facilities.A number of research and develop-ment laboratories are operated forE-RDA by universities and industrialconcerns. These facilities are majorcenters for basic and applied nuclearresearch in engineering, in physicaland life sciences, and in the develop-ment of nuclear reactors and othernuclear equipment. More than halfof the 30,000 employed in EIADAresearch and development facilitiesare engineers, scientists, and sup-porting technicians, including radi-ation monitors

Although most nuclear energy research is done in ERDA research ariddcvclopnient tar:Miles, about 2,600persons conducted research in pri-vately owned laboratories of educa-tional institutions , other nonprofit in-stitutions. and industrial concerns in19 to Nearly 3 out of 4 were in se=icili tit], ci,ginecring. and tee time aljobs

r.

Liz Establish=pitidtiting tinlear weapons,

w api."1 ..uniponcath, and other det dliNc materials enliploycd about12 70o pelsons ii. 1 9 76 Aiiik,ng the1441 gC 11,111111cA and elglneer:, ell' pleiy ed ..t these tarilitirs arephysi,.istsheiilisi3, and mechanical,elf ,,tn._al and clet,inonL eiugineersMany eng.liee, lug and physical se 1enLe technielaiks, afterS, and

inouitots asist scicothLs oiadN

Ii1976 about

.+. it

000 pe, _ions SytirCeIli the CCJIINt tic:non .at nuclear facili

tie. trios( ware eraftworkers About18.000 or these were pipe- and,tearotiiteis S.100 were electricians.and I 1,200 were laborers Severalihoiraand carpenters_ ironworkers,operating engineers, and hnilerrnaleers also were required in nuclearcuii, true( 11111

Other Nuclear Energy Activities.About 2,400 workers produced spe-cial materials such as beryllium, zir-conium, and hafnium for use in reac-tors in 1976. About 8,500 *Corkerswere employed in companies thatmade reactor control instrumentsand radiation detection and monitor-ing devices. Large numbers of engi-neers and technicians are employedin these industries_

About 6,900 people were involved_ in the design, construction, or opera-

tiQn of particle accelerators used innuclear research. Particle accelera-tors enable scientists to study thestructure and properties of elemen ta-ry particles in e nucleus of an atom.

Other *rock process and pack-age radioisotopp, produce radiogra-phy units and radiation gauges, andpackage and dispose of radioactivewaste_

ticiverrment Employment In 1976,the Energy Research and Develop-ment Administration (ERDA) em-ployed nearly 7,000 workers whowere invcived in nuclear-energy ac-tivities. The Nuclear RegulatoryCommission (NRC) employed about2,500 persons. Since ERDA andNEC are primarily administrativeand regulatory agencies, nearly 9 outof 10 employees are in atinunistra-rive. professional, or clerical jobs_Several thousand employees are en-gaiged iti nuclear energy work in oth-er Federal agencies and in regulatoryactivities and radiological health pro_gi anis of State and local governmeats

most of the occupation., dis,..ussed iiithe pie( eding sections are similar tothose found in other industrial activi-ties, even though they may have jobtitles unique to the nuclear venergyfield (such as nuclear engineeer adi-anon, chemist, and nuclear physicist)and require some specialized knowl-edge of nuclear energy ( A detaileddiscussion of the duties, training, andemployment outlook for most ofthese occupations appears elsewherein the klandbook.)

the health physics occupationsand sortie other occupations that areunique to the nuclear energy fieldand require specialized training are

, discussed briefly irs the 61lowing sec-tions.

1, Health physicists (sometimescalled radiation or radiological physi-cists or chemists) detect radiationand apply safety standards to controlexposure to it In 1976, aboat 650health physicists were employed in

. 'radiation protection ork, research.or teaching.

Health physicists are responsiblefor planning and organizing radio_

\kd eliminating radiological hazards

logical health programs at nuclearenergy facilities. They establish inpection standards and determinerocedures for protecting employees

S me supervise the inspection ofal k areas with potential radiation

haz rds and prepare instructionscove:ng safe work procedures

Het th physicists also plan and 5upervise training programs dealingwith r non hazards and adviseothers on methods of dealing writ)them. In e cases, they work onresearch or- cis dealing with the cf.frets of hurnanexposure to radiationand may develop procedures forusing radioactive. material,

Radiation morartur,s t.el,N . ..11,_ .1

health-physics technicians) g, .,etallywork under the sup_ er vision of healthphysicists About 1.900 ladidttosimonitors acre employed in ia InThey use special instrianeatsmonitor work at eas and erampti, -lato detect radioactive contamination.Soil, wider and all samples al c L.A. C11frequently to delcIriliiiie 4.1411.11.1ml

levels Mo..tto, a a15.0 Illciy . . liCO. ai1,1test radiation dete,;(ors worn byworkers, such as film t ,1gcs .ordpcpeket tr.:Lectern' -liartarela t, _iisure that they are functionin, id operly Monitors calculate the aratattaof-time that personnel may safelywork in contaminated a, as, consid-ering maximum radiation exposurelimits and the radiation le-e1 Ube),also give Inst., uctioas la radiationsafety procedures and kre...ilbe wecial clothing require Merits and othersafety precautions for workers entering radiation zones

Naclear reactor 0 p ,I.....work in nuclear power statrals shutlar to that of boiler operators In ,,011

ventional power plants; howeve, thecontrols they operate are differeol

16

They also help to load and unloadnuclear fuels used in reactors. Thosewho work with research and test re-actors cfNik reactor control panelsand adjust the controls to maintainspecified operating conditions withinthe reactor. Manta 2,100 peopleworked as nuclear reactor operatorsin 1976,

Accelerator operators setup, main-tain, and coordiqate the operation ofparticle accelerators. They adjustmachine controls to accelerate elec-trically charged particles, based oninstructions from the scientist incharge of the experiment, and set uptarget materials that are to be born=[larded by the particles.

Radiographers take radiogracheek the condition of metal ca-Olga, welds, and other objects by exposing them to a source of _radioac_tivity such as X rays or gamma raysI hey select the proper type of radi

atria source and film arid use standand ntathematleal formulas to determine exposure distance and timeAfter processing the radioactive film,the radiographer is able to discovercta,ks and weaknesses lir the objectradiogtaphcti NO that it way be reVatted

notcortap..rent t. .test

aLii4J0k-ti VC mate.ials that art= pl,,cedin hot cells -rooms enclosed with ra-alatioa shielding materials ritJ1 aslead and concrete By controlling"s1a,, c rtlarltptrlato r`rreeflcnical

that act as a pan of arms andtrati&,1 irk-u otroitie the dell artd5crving then dLile_InS thrtaigh the cellwiado perrOrill standardv Ire a tic al and -tetalittigt, al operallort5 with materials Huteel' 1,_14165 also enter the tellweaning proteral.e clothing (Si sot upeApeglwk.uith of to ..14,nktathinute thecell and cquIpmeta This classification is divided Iris. several groupsDec,...ntatn oiatt, rt w rkers use rad'anon detection in.stionicnts to locateplum areas anti materials that havebeen exposed to radiation and do"Jilt oir Mate thaw with specialegaiprnent, ds rergenta an,r Cheini,415 lfrcy also verity the citeetive-i46 I the pr i+ d-4 IC treatment()per niters Jpet ate heat exchangealm tia. pu,,n , orniA,;sauis and other

a

such equipment to decontaminateand dispose of radioactive wastes.Waste-disposal workers seal contami-nated wastes in concrete containersand transport the containers to beburied underground.

Radioisotope-production operatorsemote control manipulators and

other equipment to prepare radioiso-topes for shipping and to pSrformchemical analyses to ensure that ra-dioisotopes conform to specifica-tions_

Training and OtherQualifications

framing and education require-atents and advancement opportuni-ties for most workers in the nuclearenergy field are similar to thosedoing comparable jobs in other in-dustries, These are discussed else.where in the handbook under thespecific oecupations. However, addi=tional specialized training is requiredfor many workers because the fieldrequires exacting work standards inboth its research and production ac-tivities, and because it has uniquehealth and safety problems.

Many engineers and scientists In(110 nuclear energy field have advanced training, particularly thosedoing research, development, Linddesign work. Some employers re-quire a Ph D degree In sortie jobs,an advanced degree is not requiredbut It often increases mire's advance,mem owaor (unities,

the 4pecialized ktt-icaac tar, rear energy essential for` most screntific and engineering positions ,.;411 tusobtained at a college Or university orthrough on the-job expertem c

Many corteges and universities haveexpanded their facilities and cut riculoons to provide trtning in nuclearenergy, Most persons planning towork in the nuclear energy field as,dentistsILISt3 dud engioneers choose tomajor in a specific nuclear discipline,although a degree in a traditional en-gineering or science curriculum of-ten is sufficient to begin work in thefield Sonic colleges and universitiesaward graduate degrees in nuclearengineering or nuclear science 0th=ers offer some graduate courses inthese but award degrees only

in the traditional engineering or sci-entific fields,

Health, physicists should have atleast a bachelor's degree in physics,chemistry,'or engineering, and a yearor more of graduate work in healthphysics. A Ph. D. degree often isrequired for teaching and research.

Skill requirements for eraftswork=ers in the nuclear energy field arehigher than in most industries be-cause of the precision required to insure efficient operation and mainte-nance of complex equipment andmachinery. For example. PlpenaerSmay have to fit pipe to Jolerances ofless than one ten - thousandth of artinch and work with pipe made fromrare and costly metals..yelding alsomust meet higher reliability stand-ards than In most fieldscraft-workers generally obtain the requircd additional spccialiLed sk illsthrough apprenticeship trainin, programs of employers and unions

High school graduates %%tit) r..,taken science courses can quality ttann-the job training aft radiailonworkers, accelerator operatorstactic/grape, ha,t cell l,-ChrfIC jai IN

Ve radienst,tape production upelators, Alai r 4ditiak,tive Wast_c tilap..)501

Nurjea, pt.w.Jl reactor opera,Arced a brisrc und...istanclorg ca.tor rheorz and a working knossic,ig,-of rcactor coi, t. ally tiro --,1 014,i ta,JItrainees are high school graduatesSome receiv. spe.ralbd training crthey through a technrcar sejr,,,r1throagh i_P#41.A,n%

military 6C1 ,Atli

bCICC Ica t pi a

plant pc,surinei with aped c pcrating boilers, ..ri trines cri elecr,Lalmachinery Workers t,l,eiating IiA

clear Icat-ia c, utit.is irili ti b, I

cense.] by Or_ Nuclea, Reg,datCurrumissiorr T, quality 1,,n a Ii-ensedie 0411-MC mires( pass ji$ 01)1,341iigAnd written test given by itit NE(adol,g with a rildical ex nin,airratThe preparation for t ft( licenstrik,generally lasts at least I yea. I h.clises must be rope-wed c 'cry ycainhowevei due to rapid tech.a.rogicalchange Consequently, t,t,ntinualtraining lb necessary Aarditio nal

re rate yn beyond the operator's!,tens is needed for a 4carer ,)pcA

tor's license, which ritithorizes- theholder to supervise a-nuclear controlroom.

All employees who work in thevicinity of radiation hazards are giv-en on-the-job training in the natureof radiation and the procedures tofollow in case of its accidental re-lease.

Individuals who handle classified(restricted for reasons of nation-

al security) or who work on classifiedprojects in the nuclear energy fieldMUSE past, a seelJtay deal-ante

Fire Energy Research and Development Administration, at its con-tractor operated facilitieS, suppoitson-the job and specialized trainingprograms to help prepare scientists,engineers, technicians, and Otherworkers for the nuclear energy field,

Additional edficational and train,log opportunities are offered in k.;0.-iipcralivc ploglanrs arranged by E}&DAlabor aloi ics with colleges and UMvciMilcs y employment atthese lab,ratories is available to fac-ulty and students. Manyundergraduate and graduate engi-neering student=, work at laboratur itsand other LKIJA filk.,1111,10f. Off a it, Ca

basis and i.iaiiy glndirate stirof k al .fhlIDA

itlf)cfl .1.11icbfr,v,r Jac.,

provide ©mph., with tk-a, rig idtheta plants ..( ticatily s.olje gand kinive. rsities

I y si rat I

IL it. . ar C. 461 IL, jiIt 96t,

tire._, iii csist I Cgai jIgl%the :5r.aftfA) f d Grit iicrrfncii 1 EMS_ ti,t rite rise of 1..1,1cal rifruvti flucd c. mitt ov,rsy in .his area could

Sltr,....4 I ,AtC i,f indosroalaniikApaLcd

ilil leaf genciarr...stiAlt,:icaaN iliaSit cxycrid11-1

tOifield Besides the ji

tfpf-hlaigb created r.y employinen, rfiy t,pt i ig, will tit-cur

wtfl Ike lb tilc die or ti AllACI toCr ,,,sfilaflOilb of iiiitiifi Ica

pacify aridizsearch and deveiopintoles sir, old

1 4The numher o nuclear powerplants is expected t he several timesgreater 1985 th it was in 1976.This anticipated growth will requirelarge increases in the number ofworkers ,in the design, construction,operation, and maintenance of theseplants. In design. many more engi-neers and drafters will be required.Construction need will call for largenumbers of craftworkers and labor-ers. Many more rtuclear reactor op-erators and maintenance personnelwill be needed to bring these plantsinto operation and keep them run-ning efficiently.

Expansion will require substantialemployment increases in the sectorsinvolved in mining and milling urani-um ore, processing reactor fuel, andproducing special materials for reac-tors Also because of the concernabout the.possible health hazards ofnuclear radiation, increasing:num-bers of persons iri%ilved w reactorand personnel saprtysiciSts and rshould be needed.

Employment associated with re-.search and development also is CApt cto 11-ifeV.c, though riot as fastas in the areas directly affected byrinelcai construction An inercasingotrinher of scientists engmeers, andtech/Arch/cis will Statly Iticihodbprove the efficlitcy of the nucleargeneration ot electricity peace tuluses for nuclear exploSives and thepossible tilt.. app Iic- iron, OfDirac-al tic it

such as healthIon monitors,

e.,..iii,it,a e.. .

Colaaltl nits

rployed t,, iI al' thee rristrltveraged $6 211., 197t, eurn

pared with S5 19 for those in allinanut..c curing intra.stri

Scientist_s and engineersaveraged

700 a ..,41" in 1976 ( r.rical perI earned an average of $5 15 ani tl11e tc,...rn avelaged

itbixii S6 S5 fit fr fir (Earnings datafor ni y of ,he Lations found inthe nu ear en gy field are includedtrl the eme on these occupa=

here in ttrc tiatzdthichk )

Working conditions forworkers kfl the nuclear energy, fieldgenerally are similar to those irootherindustries, except for radiation safetyprecautions. for instance, all 'urani-um mines are equipped with mechanical ventilation systems that re-duce the concentration ofradioactive radon substance that maycause lung .injury if inhaled over anumber of years. Efforts to eliminatethis haze continuing. Manufacturfrreacilities, power plants, and research laboratories are generallywell-lighted and wellOnly a small proportion of employ-ees in the nuclear energy field actually work in areas where direct radiation dangers exist Even to theseareas, shielding, automatic alai in syS-.tems, and other devices and clothinggive-sl.mple protection to the 0.4. cot

Extensive safegualds grid opk_mg practices protect the health IndSafety of workers alio t' RDA ani 10,oritra.._tc_as lime

cellent safety, record. The NRClates the possession and use of adio-

ive materials, and inspects clearfacilities to insureicomplian e withhealth and safety ratutreme s. Con-stant efforts are he ng made to pro-vide better safety standurch r rid regu-lations,

Most hourly paid plant orkers belong to unions that rep esent theirparticular craft or indus y

al Ad IticisioIntorrn a

ItTttST iiiation reseal v.ri poigrants Iii the nude r energy field isavailable trot.

110 td,,,It.40..t.00 Ad0,110n110000 id t 20543

bin informrely iequ ren.cnts, ,ntact,

t./C1-.10ftek y 14/i10 INe'citiJLEUM AND NATURAL

tiODUCTION AND CAS PROCLSSIL,

t41,-

Industry

fin oie def.tltlrlcd heneatl the110r1S t,)1 yea IS ,fanti pit C m tk: htz

L,,tirhe petiole k,1 VA,Al I, ,I1.. .111,, 1N tt 1/y 0t,011ea 0 dEuEdi11 M

Sifflikt plot-CLAN011 1Arkil natal , 1...

-611a1 104dt,lt.t.itsk tes t Litt ynow furnish mole than ttli i= E (I

r energy needs 011 antic i..ie..talg46 run out fa,tories awl nai,sp,iatwit systems, heat ,,tj nolues 41111places of wo.k, ai..1 al,; hash, tawmaterials tot many piodii, is NEP LI dmplaStiQS, tient tc,a1S: 11

1.1.CtS, 0111 synthetic tifledS 111 st,ftt

efforts to decit4SC our N0[4,11 iiependetice on pelreneurn as a sotneeof energy, petroleum 4114 tiataral gaswill continue to supply the major

years, tt 11

A,

,.,1,.. 01 tt. Cc-L-0 .10I, Cid a ill kNE

E' -CA IIIA, (h, 11 EWE

IIIIN It, y

Ool 6 f-Li. E. Of-MI/1gI. Lt .leurn rid

1,5 A dl trialsbkoi,i, , JkAiti y energy iii

,,,k .1,11,Lt tttlaecdt I 1, A01 fife 011 a1 d gab

EIS.' 10 d11111 it wc-lls tlill.l f C existitlg wit lls t 1 k. fleas (MEM al 1a3 Ill

1 9!o ationt 3:.) 000 ...onkel w...,1c

,,t_J 11. thca,; vItIcs MsA 01 itt . 1111 ,

)yt1 itimiy LIICS; ,0014tiris 110f Ott; 110t.pdf 011 4tt.hlipciliL5 Cillpkoied the rest Oct upations iti oilferit,iiie are clis,ussed ill 0 sepal atechapter elsewhcie ate handbook

Since oil and gas are difficult tofind, exploration and drilling are keyactivities in the petroleum industry.After scientific studies indicate thepossible presence of oil, the companyselects a well site and installs a tower-like steel rig to support the drillingequipment. A hole is drilled deepinto the earth until oil or gas is foundor the company decides to write theeffort off as a loss. Although a fewlarge oil companies do their owndrilling, most is done by contractors.There are hundreds of firms engagedin the search for and production ofoil and natural gas-, Ap.

When oil or "gab- discovered,pipes, valves, tanment are installedof these raw mater

arfd other equip-control the flow

from the wellThere were more than 600,000 wells

yet this country in 1976, and a largepart of the petroleum industry's250,000 production workers wereneeded to operate and maintainthem

Oil and gas me tialisptan.d 11.0 tG

fineries by pipeline, ship, railroad,barge, or truck Many refineries arethousands of tulles front oil fields, butgd!, processing plants usually arc nearthe fields so that water, sulfur coinpout-Ids ',lilt! other Impuiltivs ban be

before the liquid as IS

piped Cu ,ostoinci.,Although drilling fu. gas 16

,Line in 35 States, id LI (site Lentosof the industry's workers are empi-ye,' in 10 States csas lea-16 inthe number or tolheld Jobs follow cdby I uuislana, Oklafruma. C alifutioaW , °ming_ Kansas, New Mexico.coloiadt). Ohio. and llhoois Thousands of y 4.14.111,11.40141 A inerica as aleGitipit,./co by oil coMpanics over cos,mostly in the Middle East, Africa,Western turope, Soiitti Aincriod,and iii In.lonesia anal othc, Ear Eastern ,oantries

kdtt... . y

ilia 4,16, k,rnon and skill. are nd.tded to liltu

. it 011a gas and bi drill, opeo.te andmaintain u ells dud process _naturalgas

.

first step tif petrolcun. p.aSmall crews of specialtLed worker%

search for geologic formations thatare likely to contain oil. Explorationparties study tic surface and subsur-

oface of the earth in der to locateplaces where oil rnig t be concen-trated in underground rock forma-tiOns. They seek clues to,the possibleexistence of oil by examining types ofrock formations on and under theearth's surface. Besides detailedground surveys, aerial explorationand magnetic surveys also are usedfor a broad picture of the area

Several methods are used to determine the nature and location of un-derground rock formations_ A tech-nique called seismic prospecting iswidely used to map underground

=rock formations In this technique, alarge-shtick is set off at the carth'ssufface. This can be caused by ex plc)sixes or i-Truire commonly by a

-thumpers- tiVhich is a heavy weightdropped on the ground The time ittakes for the sou_ drL_ via, eN 4i, I Cd..11

the rock formations and letnrii to thesurface is carefully measured to lo=cats the depth arid position of Ode Iground features Subsurface evidente also iikoollected l,y borii, andbringing up core samples ,,f the I ),Kclay, and sand that loon th, lay,, a 01the earth ,si.itila. teeluil,ine3 al Cused to explore offshore areas

Exploration vat Iles ..c. 1,,,I I.

petroleum Ae olui4c3( ( D . i

024 081 ) w ha, anal), tes old illielpikes am 1014,00,,,044_01 gall..),LJ .)y (Iipar ty Iii ak_klitkal to Era_ va, 0 .,1k "algeologist ext,,a_at4,,,n pal iicN Okay incluck tsrthi geology 51..,c,-lallsks P.a.,-

oruolugist, (L) 0.F 024 081 I Andfossil rupWlair4 jfe the cattli Li,Oil- hearing layer,, of o..1. fhIlle I.,grits ( D 0 i 024 0)51 ) stoaty physical a,id chenneal pl..._,pe, Ms of 000cral and rock samples, nrait,,,,a,h,,,(D t) T 024 081) al,,teti line therock lay,_rs most likaly to 1.. onand natural gas, ph it. , I,,, x. ) I 3

(13 0 T 024 (8 it t aarninc anal Intelprat aerial photographs of laid amfaces, and petfolvxiltJ (L) ii i

024 081) invesugate the 1 latoly 01the formation of thi- earth's !ti,stOften a geologist must have knowledge of some or all of ITICSC sr./C,-1.1ties since not all exploration patties

inc de all these specialists. Explora-tion parties also include drafters

O.T. (I 10.281 ) and surveyorsT. 018.188,), who assist in sur-

v_ying and mapping operations.Many- geblogists also work in dis-

trict ofOces.of oil companies or ex=plorat4on firms where they prepareand study geological maps. They alsostudy samples from test drilling tofind any clues to oil.

A geophysicist (D.0. I 024 08 Iusually leads a seismic prospectingcrew that may include: prospectingcomputers (D.O.T. 010.288). whoperform the calculations and preparemaps from the information recordedby the seismograph, which is an instrument that measures the earth'svibrations, and observers (0 0 T010 I68), who operate and maintainelectronic seismic equipment Otherworkers whose activities are 'elatedto exploration are. scouts (E) () T010 288). who investigate the drill-ing eKploiallipa, and leasing activities of other tanopanies in (rider toidentify promising areas to exploreand lease, aria lease bevera (D (1 -II 91 1 1 8) who make the necessaryt-2(1.1.1sN a, i ang-inents with landowricia owners of itinicial rights

iiie i igl,l to use the land

gp, au.", ts 00_01003,4,;,1 0) abA Lege the '.ticsence of oil is likely but only drillings .01 011 (),01 411piannlio4 aid supervision of dullingusually a.c th leNt..40g114004t, , of thepetiole _.,ugineer

wells as almost,, .ay Rix builde, I I 0 o I

ti84 ) gild a ci of rig builocefr,,tp,, (010 i 809 887) install a

pot tala. Willing rig to support theno...J-1111c. y and c juip,ncrit that oasesanal lowers the drilling kook Rotarydi ill,iig is [lie mal way of drilling awell A 1,,volying bit= trot -s a hole althe, 61u.inJ by clipping arol cuttingloch I he Lit attacheu lengthof te,olylag pipe,- As the hit cutsdepel into in, earth alkO, pipe isadded Driliing pipe 1y hollow a,.d1005 entire ,fepth or the well Astleaul of drilling muu is ,:ontinuamsly pumped into the hollow pipe and,onies out thiongh holes in the drillhit Flits on_rd is a mixture of clay,

chemicals, and water. Its pucpose isto cool the drill bit, plaster tillsof the hole to prevent cave-ins, andcarry crushed rock to/tise surface sothat drilling is continuous until thehit wears out. When a new hit is

needed, all of the pipe must bp pulledup out of the hole, a section at a time,a new bit placed on the end of thepipe, and the pipe returned to thehole. v

The tool pusher or drilling .supervi-sor ( D.O.T 930.130) supervises oneor more drilling rigs and supplies ma-terials and equipment to rig crews.

A typical rotary con-sists of four or five work ; driller,derrick operator, engine operator,and one or two helpers. Becausedrilling rigs are operated 24 hours aday, 7 days a week, several crews areneeded for each rig.

The rotary driller ( D.O. T.930 782) supervises the crew andoperates machinery that controlsdrilling speed and pressure, and rec=wits operations. The rotary fig engineoperator (D.0 T 950.782) incharge of engines that provide thepower for drilling and hoisting. Thederrick operator (D 0 T 930 782).who is second 111 charge_ works on asmall platform high on the rig to helptun pipe in arid out of the well hole,and ope i ales the pumps that circulate mud through the pipe. Rotarydrill helpe (1.) 0 1 930 844), alsoknown as io,igtIne).k guide the lowei end of the pipe tu and truitl thewall opening and , ol.ncet and eftsa.,)iihect pipe joints and dim bits

)1.) A) i 809 884)net al laburc)s if)usim) not coin..ad

eged pal t of a drilling crew, do goneral ,nifield 4144.10IG0.10 and aonstr tictom work such as leaalog tanks andbuilding loads

VSerl ai..a,eriWhG . 011 IN four .. th, _hill pipe gildbit arc pullgd tri,ttt he well, andmetal pipe known as casing is lowcreel into the hole and cement-kJ inplace f he upper ends al the casingarc fastened tO. a system of valvescalled a -Christmas tree P,essurein the well forces crude oil and gas tothe surface, through the Christmas

19

tree, and inF has traps and storagetanks. If na rat pressure is not greatenough to ce the raw the surface,pumps are us d

Pet role'urn engineers (13.0.T.Ol0.081) generally plan and super=vise well operation and'maintenance:To prevent waste, they decide therate of oil,flow and anticipate perforrnance of oil reservoirs by analyz-ing information such as /pressurereadings-from the well Engineers areincreasingly using computers fur arialytical work. Some engineers special-ize in areas such as overcoming offects of coreosion on well casing, inthe selection and design of productnon equipmen-t_ and pricesscs, or inthe prevention ol porrution Somecompanies hire engineer aides tomake tests, keep records. post *napsand Odic lWINC .3ssiA engthee.

rurupe 1.1 0 I '1 14 /

LliCil 1) Iiiii 10111

MIL,111,)1S pumps, ante, ;IA AA,

equipment to force teal from wellsTheir chief duty is t,)regl_,I tlicflow of ....ctuitiutg to a a_liebule.sebdip by the petiolcurri ..111J

ow,,L1 (yen._fallypunipel opci dtt.N g, al? Mr we_S1. lit he, woik is, itc idsflows under ritau.N1 puL,M1 le ..11k1

..._et pull,011.1s l +++++,,

open and close cakes to I ealatt. theoil Ito* nom Its It. tit)pip like. (144, J 1 _OS )

IlicuAtAt C ..aid 1 +++, +1,, II.,take Ly l fr,44er (D Cr I I N-52

motel aridthese liAlptAl nes by ,,hiZathe tank's. CJASe by usliqA w,."41alcailial 4,1 tic tlr,.al woolsome lisle.. polo pt.,gdugh,g icatingdutudidli,

i,loyCd hi. rii)tid _,.

1Welders, pupaMk:us citt,414.2hini1ts (=Tail a),1111,tall puiga,uges pipiug. and tube. cti...pel

Nato' at kp

prOt:CShi,ig k. rkers are )perginThe detwwdramin plum(D.() i 541 782) tends e_ /I cal

cally 'Controlled treating Urn whichremoves water and other impuritiesfrom natural gas...fhe fros-p!ant of=eralw (D.O.T 953,380) tends com-pressors that raise the pressure of thegas for transmission in the pipelines1 Plc gu3-corripre3,sor (4Percvw ( D I

950.782) assists either of these twoemployees_

Many workers in the larger natuialgas processing plants are employedin maintena(ice activities These inchide iristrunleiit le pair ei b, electriclans, .elders, and laboier.s

In numerous smaller natural gasplaints;, VeinkerS combine .k Ills, usual-ly of operator and maintenanceworker Many small plants are sohighly automat...al they are virtuallycuralteucloci I hey ale ,hawked at pcriodic intervals by inamtenanceworke..3 .01 opeititob,, Of they are

.cociinuously by tlistiunathitsthat automatically tepo.aih.1 shot down the plant it an enterCl,, y

tl1.1`1t4( SC VI,.elt 9,t basispl ,ii Ida another 1+11p+,11.4+41 sour ,-e lit

A,iroog hcs, employea J woikeis su, h ,ti-- t:

(t) () 1 930 281) .0.1", .11 itp [lc

ttte, n the steel casing and the Nelllk, 1 ,141. ta

( I) () I 78-z). who Tt.rce acidboa hattorn d the 'ALI] 1au iii

r. flow t Jo,I t82)

IA+ C g+), idctLi holt a in,hill ptp:- .1 td II Optti

f)1 t,1,-41t< 0 I 93 I lit I )

tk,) aka sartipl_., of ,,.IA and i1 1111

ell ptiller

lis gelp cstr., e of oil,I I 93u M83

real, + c p1F+1.. Up arld [)dies,411)f+ II 14 + IL, 111)111 4, CIIN 1+1

1,41)11Ag ,taii log Aah Awl-1g

c,p1and ,ducthig, ae

tics ..irc 1, rid ow an I IWicoNiiiganic,Nnt this wk. k ii do.,e oftstienepaltr,uliily In are 0,41( ot AIC:k2 Offthe Loa51-7, it aria i CXaSA d.A111431141 ,) tstit)m- k 11, beingfoiie oft tri, wail L011At of tie iJnned

States. Some drilling is expected totake place soon off the east -coast.Some wells have been drilled over100 miles from shore and in watermore than I ,000 feet deep. These[offshore operation's require the sametype of drilling crews as are em-ployed on land-operations. In Jilddi-bon, offshore operations require ra-dio operitors, c-riftks, ship's officersand sadoitand pilots for work ordrilling platforms, crewhoats, barges,and helicopters

( Detailed discussions of profes-sional, technical, mechanical, andother occupations found not only in

,.,eg,the petroleum and natural -as pro-duction industry, but in o ier indus-tries as well, are given elsewhere inthe Handbook in the sections cover-ing individual occupations ,)

Training. OilierVon 9,and Advail,onse m

MObt w ritpilpluksAUIIMIris with an exptoration crew beginas helpers and advance into one ofthe specialized jobs Their trainingina vary from several month% toNeVeldi years lV,ew workers usuallyare hir,_d Ili ale 11,1d by the crew

cii by lccal company icpicciitatives t:ollege students n-tajorIng iiiphysical or earth acicitces or Iii engiErect lug ausy AWHK part titN1C sir rtirri-In,_r with explohaucn. ,ICWN and get

j obS I

AVIcddici s di liming uieWS di,as roughnecks The majoi

ticialiti, ati..ns needed a.L ilict ban icalat- :ditty and adeclaatv physicalsher,g,r Nod tittan nla Pre i-Us capeliter -a=ct i{ desirable but rl t licttssalyAs Lii_;y ae_tluire xpcitiLli._c_ they

ad% ,e,rw,c tci doote skilled jobsZA4+111p1C orkk, hued as a

+.)515 ic,.k 111,4, Ac,, duce to dt rr r.. kverdo). aad dtic i sewer .1 yk._ ai, beui rile a 0 milk, A can ad,cialt, the of I pushei iii k hargrz ofone o. more drilling rigs

Cillipaillc4 generally hitt, pc.pitop live near wells for well op ,ration

and niaintentNnce jobs They preferapplicants who have inedninical dbilsty and a knowledge of oilfield pro,k--e,SSeN Because this type of work isless strenuous than di ill Mg and offers

the advantage of a fixed locale, mem-bers of drilling crews or exploration

parties who prefer not to travel oftentransfer to well operation and main.tenanee jobs- New workers may startas roustabout's and advance to jobs asswitchers, gaugers, or pumpers.Training usually is acquired on thejob: at least 2 years of experience areneeded to beimme an all-roundpumper:

For scie_ 7 ts.. such as geologistsand geoph sicists, college trainingwith at leash bachelor's degree isrequired. The preferred educationalqualification for a petroleum engi-neer is a degree in engineering withspecializatiOn in courses on the pe-troleum industry. However, conegradiaatee having degrees in chemi-cal, mining, civil or mechanical engi-neering or in geology, geophysics, orother related sciences often are hiredfor petrolium engineering jobs. Pe-troleum engineering aides includepeople with 2=year technical degreesas well as former roustabouts orpumpers who have been promoted

Scientists and engineers usuallystart at junior levels, after severalyears of experience they can advanceto managerial or administrative tollsScientists and engineers who tikivcresearch ability. particularly (hosewith advatwed degreesto-research or consulting work

Information on training, qualifirg-tions, and advancement in naturalgas proces g plants is similar to thatfor petroleum refining_ A statementon petroleum refining can be foundelsewhere in the Handbook.

Employment Outlook

Employment in petroleum and,natural gas production is expected toincrease faster than the average forall industries through the mid-1980's.Besides the job openings created byemployment growth, many openingswill occur as workers retire, die, orleave the industry for other reasons.

Greatly increased prices for crudeoil and natural gas and a nationalpolicy to move toward energy self-sufficiency are expected to providethe incentives for the industry toexpand rapidly, Growth will be con-centrated in exploration and drilling,and many more workers will be need-ed in most occupations associatedwith these activities. Opportunitiesshould be particularly good in off-shore drilling.

ArIgpa mina %Yadkin%Condltleal

,lat..) )

I aiJ gas extraction averaged

Very wont yrowth Iii the uilwill result from evansiGnactivities

tAdoije

projected 1985

f ib thOuSdrIAAOtlIA

ri ar...1114.ni IndustryItrtion and Milling

-AL

$5.70 an hour. In comparison, theaverage for all nonsupervisory work-ers in private industry, except farm-ing, was $4.83 an hour. Earnings usu-ally are higher in offshore operationsthan in land operations.

Most oilfield jobs involve ruggedoutdoor work in all kinds of weather.They often are in remote areas insettings as varied as a western desert,the Arctic Circle, or the Gulf ofMexico. Physical strength and stam-ina are important because the workinvolves standing most of the time,lifting moderately heavy objects, andclimbing and stooping to work withpower tools and handtools that oftenare oily and dirty.

Drilling employees may expect, tomove from place to place since theirwork in -a particular field may becompleted in a few months. Explora-tion field personnel may be requiredto move even more frequently. Theymay be away from home for weeks ormonths at a time. Well operation andMaintenance workers and natural gasprocessing workers usually remain inthe same location for long periods.

On land, drilling crews usuallywork 7 days, 8 hours a day, and thenhave a few days off In offshore op-erations, they may work 7 days, 12hours a d4y, and then have 7 days off.If the well is far from the Liu4st, theylive on the drilling rig or on shipsanchored nearby Must workers inwell operations and maintenance andnatural gas processing work 8 hi orsday. 5 days a week

I400 01 Jd14i...A1InfcermatIon

.,. da.- Infningathjili ) A .petroleum industry rilay to avt.il-

able from the personae' offices ofindividual oil companies For infor-mation on scientific and technicaljobs, write to:American Assoctatinn t ecnot-nn, craolc

grids. P 0 BOX 97.v. 11 alba. Okla 74101

3,A0Cly Ad PennICUili EhiglliCia ..t AIhlE,62041 N Central Expressway, uall.a, Tex,75206

A en-LaL Ocologliceil Ironton, 12 LeesburgPike, Fails church, Vi 22041

21

OCCUPATIONS IN THEPETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY

The petroleum refining industryforms the 'ink between crude oil pro-duction arid the distribution and con-sumption of petroleum products.Products refined from crude oil sup-ply the fuels and lubricants. used forall modes of transportation, for heatin homes, factories, and other struc-tures, and for fuel for the generationof over one-third of our electric power. In addition, basic petroleum com-pounds are useotto manufacture bundreds of everyday products such assynthetic rubber, fertilizers, and pliastics.

In 1976 about 160.000 woi kegswho had a wulle range of educationalbackgrounds and skills, were employ.ed in the petroleum &lilting, industry This industry covers uccupaLions and activities involved mrefining oil Occupatioas tit petroteurn and natural pioduk,owl andprocessing are discussed in a sopa,rate chapter elhew tic e&kik.

N ..reatia.rInJustry

udern y i6 dI plant made up of tanks anti

Quilitex,ted by_

valves, prom the tune er,,,de en--tors the lefni,ty itP NtIlidsic lit

finished products, the productiLoflow is almost continuous: Operatorsuse instruments including computersto measure and regulate the flow,volume, temperature, and pressureof liquids and gases going throughthe equipment Manual handling ofmaterials has been virtually eliminat,cd

i &ileum le home ,onsists utheating crude oil as it flows through aseries of pipes in a furnace `Fhevapors from the heated oil pass into atower where the various -fractions,-or patts of the oil are condensedI tie heaviest palls (lint c xample,fleavl fuel oils and asphalt) _are

"'elf aVvfl Oft along the bottom of thetowel LeftiletaiLtre ate high-est. 116lact parts ()et fuel and dieselfuel) are di awn 1,11- along the middle

t th. tower, and the lightest (gasp111,.; atd ,saxe_,) arc Liken oft at thetop where temperatures are lowestsirit c ibis 1,1t),C11 dies not pi oduec asufticicnt quantity of some products..,.11 as ganolillc (tic I 1./IOCCSNIIINliy methods

67, t i tnt =dales pi o.Itlx,t_N obtainedoomb , nig to iiiLrease the

y lc Id (Ai sonic products Treatingla 4. tiNCLI I.) I cli, iISC. Nik,sta_i

ttir Ck,n-lp.Pdlidl,, and other impurities- hoot 2150 le, aeic In p

Over pcieeiit of all VV4A11,4/ 1110 FiCli 4.)/041/11 i4llrilrr9indufry are e11ti)lc fete to ten la.e5

eration in 1976. They ranged in sizefrom plants with fewer than ten em-ployees to those with several thou-sand. Although many States have re-fineries, about 85 percent of theworkers wereerriployed in 10 States:Texas. California, Pennsylvania, 1111-

,'urns, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Ohio,New York, New Jersey, and Indiana.Refineries usually are located nearoilfields, industrial centers, or deep-water ports where tankers can dock,

Occupations In the IndustryAbout 1 out of every 2 workers in

a refinery is involved in the operation(as opposed to maintenance) of theplant. A key worker in convertingcrude oil into usable products is therefinery operator (D.O.T. -542.280).or chief operator, who is responsiblefor one or more processing units. Therefinery operator, with help fromassistant operators, makes adjust-ments for changes in temperature,pressure, arid oil flow In modern re-fineries, operators monitor instru-ments on panels that show the entireoperation of all processing units inthe refinery They also patrol units tocheck their operating conditio

Other pluntworkers mayell pL. trt p operotrois (0 T

549,782), also knONS,11 ._Az, pumpers,and their helpers (f) 549 884).wti t, aiotaili aroi ope.,o.e pumpsthat control all production throughout die r diner y, and [,Carer ( I) 0 -1'54,1 7S2 ), who operate equipment tor,.:rnoe rn.pur nieN fix:Mk gasoline,and utile I prod WAS In automated

4,011l paters may du the workprio,pe is and t. Cale. s t,,/peiators

monitor the k;Ofilial(ers t.0 ,pot paten-trot ptublesti areas. and may makeI Checks or the efiro.ry Lumake bt.ic that .ai,,ss are operatingpropc.ly

Many i trriiicr 1 <5 ,141 phi) 1.416of araintenatice wet Ke is in EC

pair r, build, repla,e and cleanequipment In other wants, somemaintenance work is contracted toorriparries outside the petroleum in

dustry Many rouiliter,ance work eraC needed because high heat, pres-

sun-. and corrosion .tuickly wear outthe complex refining equipmentOccupations iftolved in mantictrance include skilled boilermakers,electricians, carpenters, instrument

114,1

Z,+iii 'MSC 11atics Star 1. lerried *AS, is

1..4 Y. Y._ 1,,11114,At ,ain

anti als o it C ability 111 h .nnic L=. r.,ery

()Fefatuf ubaa.ye. refinery 1,14114010

al.,. I141y i c yl y i :Ilk 1 ..

11a. ,hsI t41,1

11,1.114o/.1, 1,, ort,,tYY 111,.111101

Olaf') lasks. ,orrie goaldike tiocks sonic 1,,,1,1 icirtrair..i war, 18t ks

ships, arid I .1I . tildt

6ti.a111N a. t 1,.1111,

Abn,it

Ann.i__J ..1,d L.1.these j, t

III 1311 41, 1st

1.111111 Ii1. l ,11611, Y.1 t

alt,:LOI11 lah,n as ay, I

Atiallt) t

[nal nig a11.1 ,o1,11). 1.,

design chemical processing equip=mcnt and plant layout, and otherssupervise refining processes_ Envi-ronmental engineers and techniciansSupervise and imProve treatment anddisposal of refinery waste waters andgases, Drafters prepare plans 'anddrawings needed in refinery con-struction and maintenance

Refining companies employ manyadministrative, clerical, and otherwhite collar personnel Administratine workers include managers, dccouritants. purchasing 'agents, lawycrs, computer programmers,cOmputel analysts, and personneland training specialists. 1 ypists, sec-retaries, bookkeepers. keypunch operators, and business machine operators assist administiative Wt.:Mkt:15

DC1411Cd 1-11is511,1IIN rut pi 1_,ICSSI01141

reChI111/11iCL1O-11111k.1.11 and oilieroccupations found not 01J), in petrir!cum taming Lail also in odic' 'lidostries arc plesented elsewhere lo theHarrell). k. )

Training, utne. auantik.attunaend Advancement

I t,.I =, ..= I pi. ,I1 di. high 614 01,31,,

_ ,IALA 111,1 c(:,. 1..41 G., put ica Ing 40.1 hi,c(I 1 11_ I .li11 )11,, OC.tpi111, al, 11C 1111, sppli

pi o roe pi ,i._1 cams tot plal.1 14.+1/,, iiiCApCrICIICC,;11

nc,..11411 1,It1L111, 1461.,,i ty/4.1i 1.11Cy wc.- .11111a,

.11111 ..triipit N.e1113 1),35 hal

1133,1 1d c,,i/c-,le-n.1little .JeLge !Till 1.380's doe to

pludt.Ltivit inipio,emenit

maintenance work. They may betransferred either to the operatingdepartment' or the maintenance de-partment when a vacancy occurs.

Workers newly assigned to an'op-crating department learn to operateequipment under the guidance of ex-perienced operators. Formal trainingcourses frequently are given in plantoperation.

A supervisor trains inexperiencedworkers in maintenance skills. Somerefineries give classroom instructionrelates to particular work. After 3 or4 years, a person may advance frorai.,helper to skilled craft worker in oneof the maintenance crafts. Somelarge refineries train 'workers in sev-eral crafts. For example, a qualifiedinstrument repairer may be givenelectrician or machinist training

For scientists and engineers, a

bachelor's degree in an appropriatefield usually is the minimum eduLational requirement Advanced degrees are preferred for researchwork

For mast lab°. ,114.4 ) /a/-11;,(.1/( Ht,..

2 ',cal technical SLI-1.1.01 I( 41111,ig

I CL/UlleJ I alio' aior yIn routine jobs and advance Le pt)t.1Lions of greater responsibiliti a.,acquire experience and learn to irkwithout close supery ision Incenced drafters begin as cpyists ortriter:1s and ean adv all, ,2 t., lit-1 k.skilled drafting Ions

Administivirn e pt, i a/.

ale filled by przopic wdcgices in science mid i1gli,. lingdi2Couttliiig buslitc-5 ii,,fusliial ttAtsiLions, of otltel speLimized new.positions as tic I KN ta)tik N

retaties, ant_i typist itit,t1 1,1h,

employ persons who have had corn- in petroleum refining averaged $7.72mercial courses in high school or an hour, compared with an averagebusiness school. For occupations as- of $4.83 an hour for productionsociated with computers, educational workers in manufacturing industriesrequirements range from a high as a whole.school level for keypunch operators Because petroleum is refinedto a college degree in the physical around the clock, opertors may bescience field for analysts. assigned to any one of the three

shifts, or they may be rotated onvarious shifts. Some operators workweekends and get days off due= theweek Employees usually recave ad-ditional pay for shift work. Mostmaintenance workers are on dutyduring the day.

Most refinery jobs require onlymoderate physical effort. A few

Employment utlook

Employment iii pv;(101,2(1111 rcfhihigis expected to show little chancethrough the mid 1 9HO's: Refineryoutput is expected to increase tomeet the Nation's growing demandfor petroleum products, but automat-ed, computerized plants, increasedrefining capacity? and improved re-fining techniques should make it possible for the industry to increase pro-duction without increasingemployment siginficantly Nevertheless. thousands of job openings willicsuli trout the need to replace work-ers who retire dic, or transfer to oth-ei ,. _ufiatiC,ils

most jobs vviii I. It.. ,,pci at.' s,a, ontrionice wo.ke.v a

Loll, and technicians 111 rile mondetianve ViCA.ket bierpipclitte I N aild instrumcritw Ill he needed Lk) take care at Lbc

titg aiil,iu.tt at automated,,,itilputt2 II altki etotatoi IIIsit mitt-tit,

I

Co , dItli nu

dtt.

tet ,r,Im111,111i ".

workers, however, have to open andclose heavy valves and climb stairsand ladders to considerable heights.Others may work in hot places ormay be exposed to unpleasant odors.

Many refinery workers are unionmembers and belong to the Oil,chemical and Atomic Workers Inter-national Union. Some refinery work-ers are members of AFL-CIO craftunions, or of vat itlus Independentunions

Sooi,,u4 al AviditlociaiInk mation

iltit,i tilatlt,ti tJiltoes ilt the petiolconi reilning iiidirstr IlLay b obtained hom the persorincl ofriees of individual oilLt)III pii it Icn (ienerai information onjobs in the industry is available from.

A,stt,,,I411,11S,Itt 602 I 725 ti Sates St NW Wash

. it t 2003e)

td =o2n