electrical report - solar energy techs
TRANSCRIPT
Faculty of Engineering, Architecture and Science
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Electrical Systems for Buildings
SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES AS AN ALTERNATIVE
SOURCE OF ENERGY
STUDENT: JULIA KONNOVA 2014
1
Executive Summary
The purpose of the following report was investigation of the potential of solar technologies as an
alternative source of energy. The covered topics included overview of the following areas:
- Conventional Photovoltaic Systems - Utilization solar energy for heat storage purposes - Industrial application of solar technologies - Hybrid Systems implementing double function of utilizing both heat and light energy - Experimental technologies of conversion heat and light into electricity - Nanotechnologies improving performance of conventional PV systems - New technologies of transparent photovoltaic cells based on absorbing infrared light - Applications in different fields, appliances and devices.
The investigation of solar technologies amazed by the multipurpose and variety of implementation in different fields, such as:
- Urban design, - Architecture from a small residence to communities and iconic buildings, - Industry and transportation.
The benefits of pure, green energy that can satisfy our needs without destroying the planet are support by easy maintenance and long life of the devices (25-30 years for PV cells), financial savings on household bills. Solar technology is not anymore only alternative green technology; it is free and renewable source of energy competitive with conventional oil based systems nowadays and able to replace them in near future.
2
Table of content
Executive Summary 1
Introduction 3
Solar Electricity. Conventional Photovoltaic Power 4
Heat Storage & Water Hating System 6
Types of solar water heating systems 7
Flat-Plate collector. Evacuated-tube solar collectors 8
Integral collector-storage system. Solar Power Tower 9
Solar reflectors. Location 10
Solar Wall PV/Thermal Hybrid System 11
SolarDuct. SolarWall 12
Solar Energy Conversion Process: Light and Heat. Nanotechnology 13
Solar Thermal Cooling 14
Transparent Polymer Solar Cell. Organic Solar Cells or Photovoltaic Cells (OPVs) 15
Manufacturing process and Cost. Principle of work. Application 16
Challenges 17
Conclusion 18
References 19
Appendix
1. Implementation of hybrid Solar Wall & Duct PV/T systems within building structure. 20
2. Schematic Comparison of Rigid Crystalline Silicon to a Flexible Organic Solar Cell 21 3. Scheme of working process of Solar Power Tower 22
4. Implementation of solar technologies in different fields 23 5. Solar Panel Awnings and Roof Shingles 24
3
Introduction
According to some research, Buildings take up 40% of the global energy demand, and that
number will reach soon 60%. It is about 41% of energy use, 73% of electricity consumption and
38% of all CO2 emissions. Integration of the alternate green technologies is the way to combat
this in the future. According to Armonk, N.Y.-based IBM, employing a smart building strategy
can help reduce energy use by up to 50 percent and increase facilities utilization by up to 85
percent. Technologies based on utilization of the solar radiation are one of the emerging and
most promising in the world these days. [16]
The earth receives about one-half of one-billionth the sun’s energy output. It would meet the
energy of the entire world, if convert less than 0.1% of this solar radiation into electricity. Solar
radiation can be collected, stored and used in buildings and building systems to provide heat,
power and even cooling. [1]
The advantages of utilization solar power are following but not limited:
- Generates free energy from the sun - Has no moving parts to break down and as a result required minimum maintenance - Long life and durability of the systems (up to 30 years) - No noise, exhaust or emit - Storage and utilizing power during blackouts - Opportunity and cost-effectiveness the use of electricity in remote areas where it would
be expensive or impossible to run power lines - Non-polluting energy reduces emissions: Has no direct impact on the environment - Minimizing costs of energy consumption. [11]
Variety of applications, advantages and challenges of implementation solar technologies, as well as latest tendencies and researches were discussed further in the report.
4
Solar Electricity. Conventional Photovoltaic Power
Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight into electricity. It has numerous environmental and
economic benefits with proven reliability.
The sunlight is a free, pure and abundant renewable source of energy that Earth receives
enough quantity every day. It does not produce air pollution or hazardous waste and does not
require any fuel to be transported or combusted. The electricity can be stored and the
applications are widespread.
The initial component of
the system is a
photovoltaic cell. It is
constructed of
semiconducting material,
usually silicon. Absorbing
the sunlight, electrons in
semiconducting material
move, producing a flow of
electrical current. The
photons that compose the
solar radiation contain
energy. PV cell absorbs
photons, energy of which is
then transferred to an
electron in the
semiconducting material.
This supplementary energy
enforces the electron to
jump to a higher orbit and
jump from atom to atom. A
permanent electric field built into the cell forced electron movement in a specific direction: out of
the cell, through an electrical circuit, and back to the other side of the cell. The electron flow
causes the electricity. [1]
This electricity (direct current) can be used then by appliances or converted into Alternate
current and enter the utility grid.
Typical PV cell consists of the following elements:
- Waterproofing glass cover
- Antireflective layer to keep sunlight from reflecting away from the cell
- Top metallic grid – operates as contact to allow the electrons to enter the circuit
- Back contact layer to allow the electron complete the circuit.
The scheme demonstrates the circle how PV cells are formed into a Module of numerous cells.
Modules are constructed into a Solar Panel, a quantity of which forms Solar Array. However, for
the performance of Solar Panels as a Building-Integrated PV (BIPV) that generates electricity,
the whole system of other components is required.
5
Major System Components
The photovoltaic system consists of
the following modules:
– Solar panel
- Inverter
- Charger
- Batteries
The PV modules generate Direct
Current (DC) that through inverter
changes into Alternating Current (AC).
The AC provided the electricity at the
appropriate voltage and frequency to
feed with the power all home appliances, lights etc. The batteries able to store the energy
produced by PV panels and distribute it back when a demand arises. They are recharging each
day to maintain battery charge. Charge controller prevents battery overcharging and prolongs a
long life of the battery.
Types of PV Systems
PV systems classified according to functional and operating requirements, components
configuration, connection to other power sources and appliances. The most common
classifications are further investigated.
Grid connected (GTS) – systems designed to
operate in parallel with the electric utility grid. The
AC power supplied to the utility by the inverter,
which automatically stops supplying power to the
grid when the utility grid is not energized.
Stand Alone System – are designed to operate
independent of the electric utility grid. They may be
powered only by PV array or combined in hybrid
systems with wind, an engine-generator or utility
power as a backup power source. The simplest
type of a stand-alone system is direct-coupled,
when DC output of PV module is directly
……………………………………………………connected to a load that uses direct current. There
is no battery in this system, so it operates only
during sunlight hours. This system is suitable for
applications as ventilation fans, water pumps or for
………..solar thermal water heating pumps.
System with battery can be both – stand alone and
grid–tie (GTB). The battery stores power for use
during night or blackouts.
6
Hybrid Systems in addition to the battery
use a wind, engine-generator or utility
power to backup power source. [1, 11]
Hybrid power systems can be more cost
effective in application in remote location,
where the price to extend a power line to
the electricity grid is costly. They are used
in rural areas to provide water for livestock,
water pumps, farm lighting and fence.
Heat Storage & Water Hating System
A water heating systems are the alternate way to store energy. The conversion efficiency of a
resistance heater is nearly 100%. Heat loss can be minimized through insulation of storage
tank. Hot water can be used for domestic needs or for heating purposes in baseboard electric
home heaters.
The electricity in water heating systems is sent to resistance heaters sunk in water, which can
be DC or AC powered with unregulated voltage and frequency levels.
7
1. There are two types of solar water heating systems: - Active with circulating pumps and controls. They also subdivide on direct and indirect circulation system. In direct system, pumps circulate household water through the collectors into the home. In Indirect circulation systems, pumps circulate a non-freezing, heat-transfer fluid through the collectors and a heat exchanger, which heats the water that then flows into the home. This system is for using in climate with freezing temperatures, while direct work well in climate with rarely freezes due to water physical properties that can freeze in
pipes. - Passive water heating, In contrast with active, systems do not have pumps. They are less expensive, but not as efficient as active systems, while being more reliable with longer lifecycle. In areas where temperature rarely falls below freezing – integral collector-storage passive systems work best. In Thermosyphon systems water flows through the system when warm water rises as cooler water sinks. The collector installed below the storage tank so that warm water able to rise into the tank. This system requires installation of a heavy storage tank on the roof.
Storage tanks and solar collectors are often incorporated into water heating system. In two-tank systems, water is preheated by water heater in first tank, before enters the convential water heater. In one-tank systems, backup heater is combined with the solar heater. Three types are used for residential buildings:
8
Flat-plate collector
Two types of flat-plate collectors available:
- Unglazed, used for solar pool heating. They
have a dark absorber plate, made of metal or
polymer, without cover.
- Glazed, weatherproofed boxes with dark
absorber plate under one or more glass or
polymer plastic and consists of following layers:
- Glass protects absorber from the outside,
allowing 90% of sunlight to be absorbed.
- Insulation helps reduce heat loss.
- Absorber - a thin sheet of Aluminium is coated
with a highly selective material that is extremely
efficient at absorbing sunlight and converting it
into usable heat. The aluminium sheet is
ultrasonically welded to the copper riser pipes.
Riser & Header Pipe - the solar system heat
transfer fluid circulates through the header and
riser pipes, which are brazed together to form a
harp shaped heat exchanger. [13]
Evacuated-tube solar collectors
Parallel rows of transparent glass tubes feature
form evacuated-tube solar collectors. Each tube
contains a glass outer tube and metal absorber
tube attached to a fin. The Fin’s coating absorbs
solar energy but inhibits radiative loss.
Cross Section of a Single Evacuated or Vacuum Tube & view on the roof
Flat –plate collector. View on the roof (top) &
Schematic section of (bottom)
9
Integral collector-storage system
In ICS or batch systems one or more black tanks or tubes in an insulated, glazed box combined. First cold water passes through the solar collector, which preheats the water. Then water enters conventional backup water heater, providing adequate temperature.
Solar Power Tower
Scheme of working process of Solar Power Tower. See also Appendix 3, page 22.
Solar Thermal Tower is another way of converting thermal solar energy into the electricity. This
system works same as traditional power plants by creating high temperature steam to turn
turbine. Generator produces electricity enough for industrial use.
System consists of:
- Solar Receiver or Boiler – on the top of tower. It receives concentrated sunlight; as a result
water converts to high-temperature steam.
- Heliostats – mirrors, controlled by software for concentrating sunlight on a central tower.
- Turbine – when hot air accumulates in the tower, it acts like an exhaust pipe provoking
movement turbines and producing electricity in outcome.
Integral collector storage tank
10
- Air-cooled condenser – steam powers
a turbine and is then converted back to
water through air-cooled condenser.
Storage – extends solar electricity
production for night time.
Solar Reflectors
The three most common types of solar
reflectors are parabolic troughs and
dishes. Both use mirrors shaped like
parabolas to focus incoming radiant
energy onto a fluid-filled pipe that runs
down the center of a trough. [14]
Location
Solar towers are rentable in locations
only with a high amount of sunshine.
Areas selected that are near roads and
existing transmission lines – places
where human activity has already left
its mark, such as grazing lands; where
there is a reduced need for new
transmission lines, and where
environmental impacts can be
minimized.[15]
11
Solar Wall PV/Thermal Hybrid System
Solar Wall PV/T and Solar Duct PV/T are hybrid systems that provide pure electricity and heat
captures from the sun. Renewable energy generation usually utilizing sun radiation in two ways
– Electricity, using photovoltaic
cells PV;
- Thermal generation heating water
or air.
As Sun produces both kinds of
energy at the same time, it creates
issues for PV panels, as they lose
efficiency under heating conditions.
At the same time, heat not always
required for the building or may not
achieve required temperature in
cold season, while conversion sun
rays into the electricity can be 3 to
4 times less efficient than thermal
conversion. However, combined
system of capturing both heat and electricity, optimize the useful energy generated from the sun
and improve energy output in the range of 200-300%, depending on air flow and other design
considerations.
Typical PV modules have efficiency of converting solar energy up to 15%. The rest of heat
energy is not only lost, but decreases PV arrays performance. If outdoor temperature is above
25 oC, with every addition 1 oC the output of PV drops by 0.5%. That means electrical output of
a typical rooftop array that may measure at 55 to 75 oC would fall by 12 to 25 % below the name
plate rating, producing only 7.5 to 8.8 kW instead 10 kW.
A hybrid system not only capturing heat and utilizing it as an additional energy output, but
benefit array system, by recirculating fresh air around each PV module, increasing its efficiency
by 5-10%.
The results of the performance
of this hybrid technology
showed that the adding the
SolarWall thermal component
to a PV array enhances the
total efficiency to over 50%
compared with 10-15%
efficiency for conventional PV
modules.
The “double-duty” of thermal
panels and PV racking system
contribute also to a cost
effectiveness of hybrid system.
12
Two types of SolarDuct and SolarWall offered in configuration with PV modules.
SolarDuct is available in a modular roof-top
configuration. The PV modules are
mounted on top of the SolarDuct unit, so
heat is drawn off the back of the PV
modules and conveyed through a duct to
the rooftop air handling unit, from where
this preheated air is then channeled into the
building HVAC system. The modular units
are easy in installation and angled at an
optimum orientation for maximum solar
gain.
In second configuration, PV modules are
assembled on the top of the SolarWall. The
warm air is also ducted into the building
conventional HVAC system. Dampers direct the
unwanted heat away from the building in
warmer weather, still providing recirculation of
fresh air around PV modules.
The following additional
features benefits system
and accelerate the PV
system return on
investments:
- This system has higher
life cycle cost savings,
because of the heat
energy from SolarWall
componentt;
- SolarWall panels replace
the conventional racking
system needed to mount
PV;
- Huge reduction in
greenhouse gas
emissions, as this system
displays using natural gas
or heating oil
- Decrease both heating
and electricyti costs. [7, 8]
PV – with SolarDuct (on top & left corner) and SolarWall (bottom)
See also Appendix 1, P. 20 - Implementation of hybrid Solar Wall & Duct PV/T systems
within building structure
13
Solar Energy Conversion Process: Light and Heat
Solar panels and solar-powered devices typically use heat or light for converting it into the
energy. However, they have never been able to use both simultaneously. The heat producing by
sun even decreasing solar cells efficiency, as it was reviewed in previous chapter. Photon The
new process of Enhanced Thermionic Emission (PETE) combines the heat and light solar
radiation to create electricity.
Scientists from Stanford state that this technology is breakthrough in a new energy conversion
process, especially as the materials required to produce PETE are very affordable.
They discovered that by shelling a piece of semiconducting material with a layer of metal
cesium, enabling the converting heat and light radiation into the electricity at the same moment.
The efficiency of PETE process is increasing, as the panel temperature arises. However, it does
not reach maximum efficiency until the panel’s temperature reach of 200 oC, while traditional
solar panels reach heat around 100 oC on a hot day in the sun. It causes the application of this
technology more efficient in concentrators (i.e. parabolic dishes), which are used to power entire
grids and communities. Researches state that the efficiency in large concentrators using PETE
can be increased by 55%. [9]
Nanotechnology
Other studies
regarding the
increasing efficiency
of the solar cells were
announced by
Princeton University.
Scientist applied a
“nano-mesh” to
plastics that make a
way for producing
inexpensive
flexible devices
and greatly increasing
the efficiency of
…………………………………………………………………………………….standard PVs.
This new nanotechnology demonstrates the ability to triple the efficiency of solar cells by
excluding two principal factors of light loss and reflection.
Nano-mesh is designed to dampen reflection and trap light to be converted into electrical
energy.
It absorbs 96% and reflects only 4% of the light, increasing the efficiency of converted light into
energy in 52% higher than conventional PV in direct sunlight and up to 175% on cloudy days.
[10]
14
Solar Thermal Cooling
Solar chillers use thermal energy provided by the sun or other backup sources to produce cold
and/or dehumidification.
There are two main solar cooling processes:
- Closed cycles, where thermally driven sorption chillers produce chilled water for use in space
conditioning equipment
- Open cycles, also referred to as desiccant evaporative cooling systems (DEC), which typically
use water as the refrigerant and a desiccant as the sorbent for direct treatment of air in a
ventilation system.
Solar cooling has a number of advantages over alternative solutions:
- It can help reduce the electricity peak demand associated with conventional cooling, as
maximum solar radiation usually occurs when cooling is needed. Solar thermal cooling can also
operate in the evening by using thermal storage.
- When summer is over, solar cooling systems can be used for heating purposes such as
domestic hot water preparation or space heating. [17]
Silicon was used for the solar cells because of its efficiency at converting sunlight at energy.
However, it is expensive and brittle, so protective materials like heavy glass or some other
polymer plastics have cover it. It makes manufacture process costly, as well as transportation,
storage and installation. Bulky, rigid and heavy constructions of convention PV is hard to
integrate within the building architectural design. They are used only as pure systems for
generating energy.
It is not surprising that the engineers’ research new technologies to solve those problems and
find light, flexible, and easy produced at low cost product that besides power output, can be
easily integrated within the building structure. The following chapter is dedicated to explore
opportunities of that technologies as well as challenges and potential of large-scale production
in near future.
Hybrid Solar Air Conditioning Diagram. Machine-History.com
15
Transparent Polymer Solar Cell
The new generation of the transparent solar cells has been recently invented by UCLA
(University of California, Los Angeles) researches.
This new material is nearly 70%
transparent to the human eye, so could be
used as glazing material for windows or
curtain wall systems that produce energy.
A photoactive plastic absorbs not visible
infrared light and converts it into an
electrical current.
Accomplished by lightweight, flexibility and
potential of being produced in high volume
at low cost, this technology is attractive for
the smart windows and building-integrated
photovoltaics applications, as recharging
surfaces for portable electronics (laptops,
cellphones and MP3 players).
These results were achieved by incorporation of near-infrared light-sensitive polymer and silver
nanowire composite films as the top transparent electrode. A mixture of the silver nanowire and
titanium dioxide nanoparticles allows inventing the transparent conductor that replaced the
opaque metal electrode used in the past.
Implementation this new technology is very exciting for producing the transparent conducting
windows as a new ecological building product in a sustainable architecture. [2]
Organic Solar Cells or Photovoltaic Cells (OPVs)
The third-generation of the photovoltaic (third-gen PV) or organic solar cells (OPV) was
introduced for the market by Massachusetts-based manufacturer Konarka Inc.
Carbon-compound based organic
materials are used in form of small
molecules, dendrimers and
polymers, to convert solar energy
into electric energy. Having the
ability to absorb light these semi
conductive organic molecules induce
and transport electrical charges
between the conduction band of the
absorber to the conduction band of
the acceptor molecule.
Single and Multilayer types of OPVs
are currently used in research.
The Structure of a Single-Layer & a Multilayer Organic Solar Cell See also Appendix 2, P. 21- Schematic Comparison of Rigid Crystalline Silicon to a Flexible Organic Solar Cell
16
Manufacturing Process & Cost.
Due to molecular nature of the used material, organic cells could be manufactured much easier
than silicon based. Molecules can be easy inked or printed on the thin film substrates that are
1,000 times thinner than silicon cells,
which reduce the production cost
significantly. It makes the storage,
installation and transportation very
undemanding, as they offered in
convenient (eg. rolled) portable forms-
less prone to damage and failure, much
lighter and flexible comparing to the
conventional silicon panels.
Due to mechanical flexibility, solar cells
can be spread over irregular shapes, as
pneumatic cushions structures, tents or
curtain wall façade systems.
Moreover, low-temperature and low-
energy demands of organic cells
production process also reduce cost factor.
Principle of work.
Solar cells can be likened roughly to penlight batteries. In an AA cell, a chemical reaction drives
electrons from the positive (+) to the negative (-) pole, while in solar cells, the energy of light
moves electrons. When a photon of light strikes a solar cell, it generates a pair of positive and
negative charge carriers. When the pair separates inside the cell, they make current. [6]
Application.
Organic Solar Cells able to perform
power without cooling, which means
they can be integrated into a
“sandwich” building elements, even
if they do not provide back-
ventilation for integrated PV panels.
The power output of third-gen PV
technologies is not so dependent on
the access of direct solar radiation,
compared with silicon, suggesting
high performance under low light
conditions such as fog, partially
shaded building surface areas or
indoors.
17
This makes third-gen PV an ideal candidate for cloudy or
smoggy environments such as major built up cities, where low
light conditions are commonplace; in equatorial areas, where
lots of clouding is caused by the Intertropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ); or in high latitudes, where overcast skies are typical. In
addition, third-gen PVs can be developed for certain types of
indoor applications, like powering emergency lights or motion
detectors. [4]
Besides advantage of the transparency, at night this structures
can be illuminated by LED lights or multimedia screens, printed
in variety spectrum of colors and patterned through all the
façade. This blend of sustainable and digital technologies
significantly impacts on contemporary architecture changing the
way how the buildings would be designed and produced and
open up the market for building-integrated PV products (BIPV).
Well-known examples of that structures integrated within the
facades are the Olympic Swim Stadium in Beijing, China, Burj Al
Arab in Dubai, Allianz Arena in Munich.
Challenges.
Besides numerous advantages, third-gen PVs
have lower efficiency (5%) comparing to the
conventional solar panels, and short lifetime.
They more complement silicon panels, then
able to compete with them.
Nonetheless, inexpensive production and
undemanding maintenance encourage further
research in developing new polymeric materials
and combinations to enhance efficiency, exceed
the lifetime pending 20-30 years and achieve
large-scale production at low-cost within the
next decade.
Glass is the most popular and durable building
material nowadays, with relatively small impact
on the environment. The technologies of a new
coating and material combination, accomplished
with engineered advances rapidly developing, in
order to generate a first-class benign product
………………………………………………………for nowadays and prospect. [3,4,6]
18
Conclusion
The oil based fuels are dwindling and technologies based on those utilizations eventually
proceed to a crisis. Solar energy technologies have a great potential and there is a huge
demand for this kind of technologies. The applications are widespread and allow harnessing all
kinds of solar radiation – from light to heat and infrared light, producing electricity, hot water and
even cooling to provide air conditioning for the houses. The scale of devices also striking by its
diversity: from solar cooking appliances for residential houses, to solar thermal towers that
produce energy enough for industrial purposes. Variety of applications in architectural field allow
to manage and minimize energy consumption, providing owners and occupants clean energy
that lead to a great savings in future.
The great minds are forced in developing solar technologies and we can expect more
improvements in covering most of our energy requirements by a solar energy in near future.
19
References:
[1] Mechanical and Electrical Systems in Architecture, Engineering and Construction, 5/e
Frank R. Dagostino and Joseph B. Wujek
[2] Science & Technology News Since 1998. Highly Transparent Polymer Solar Cell Produces
Energy by Absorbing Near-Infrared Light. (http://scitechdaily.com/highly-transparent-polymer-
solar-cell-produces-energy-by-absorbing-near-infrared-light/)
[3] Bright Hub. Organic Solar Cells vs Semiconductor-based Solar Cells.
(http://www.brighthub.com/environment/renewable-energy/articles/95572.aspx#imgn_2)
[4] Plastic Electronics. Building design and the potential of third-generation solar cells ()
[6] National Research Council Canada. ARCHIVED - Shaped to fit: flexible solar cells
(http://www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/eng/dimensions/issue4/solar_cell.html)
[7] Solar wall. PV/Thermal; Hybrid Solar Heating + Electricity
(http://solarwall.com/en/products/pvthermal.php)
[8] Kipp & Zonen. Sun Shines on JMSB building. (http://www.kippzonen.com/News/75/Sun-Shines-
on-JMSB-building#.VIx3641B_IU)
[9] The Alternative Energy eMagazine. Solar Energy Conversion Process: Light and Heat
(http://www.altenergymag.com/emagazine/2010/08/solar-energy-conversion-process-light-and-
heat/1564)
[10] Great Things from Small Things. Nanotechnology Innovation. Nanotechnology triples solar efficiency. (https://genesisnanotech.wordpress.com/2012/12/12/nanotechnology-triples-solar-efficiency/)
[11] Solar Direct. Photovoltaic Systems. (http://www.solardirect.com/pv/systems/systems.htm)
[12] Energy.Gov. Solar Water Heaters. ( http://energy.gov/energysaver/articles/solar-water-heaters )
[13] Apricus. Flat-Plate Solar collectors. (http://www.apricus.com/flat-plate-solar-collectors-3/)
[14] Bright Source. Technology. (http://www.brightsourceenergy.com/technology)
[15] Energy Home. Solar Reflectors.
(http://www.energyeducation.tx.gov/renewables/section_3/topics/solar_reflectors/index.html)
[16] Smarter Building Technology(http://www.metalarchitecture.com/articles/magazine-
features/smarter-building-technology.aspx)
[17] European Solar Thermal Industry Federation. Cooling with solar thermal.
(http://www.estif.org/st_energy/technology/solar_thermal_cooling_and_air_conditioning/)
20
Appendix
1. Implementation of hybrid Solar Wall & Duct PV/T systems within building structure.
21
2. Schematic Comparison of Rigid Crystalline Silicon to a Flexible Organic Solar Cell
22
BrightSource has approximately 1.8 gigawatts of power under contracts with Southern California
Edison and Pacific Gas & Electric Company, California’s two largest utilities. In addition, the
company manages an approximately 90,000 acre development site portfolio in California and
the U.S. Southwest that has the potential to accommodate approximately 9 GW of installed
capacity. [14]
3. Scheme of working process of Solar Power Tower
23
Solar pool cover not only prevents heat from escaping, but absorbing thermal energy that is used for heating the pool.
4. Implementation of solar technologies in different fields
LED Street Lights by Petra Smart Solution. (http://www.greentechmedia.com/multimedia)
Solar cooking device
Solar shaded parking
24
Another variation of
Building Integrated
PV installations are
Solar Panel Awnings
and Solar Roof
Shingles.
5. Solar Panel Awnings and Roof Shingles