InDefenseofaLiberalEducation

FAREEDZAKARIA

W.W.NORTON&COMPANYNewYork•London

Formychildren,Omar,Lila,andSofia

Wearedrowningininformation,whilestarvingforwisdom.Theworldhenceforthwillberunbysynthesizers,peopleabletoputtogethertherightinformationattherighttime,thinkcriticallyaboutit,andmakeimportantchoiceswisely.

—E.O.Wilson

Contents

1:ComingtoAmerica2:ABriefHistoryofLiberalEducation3:LearningtoThink4:TheNaturalAristocracy5:KnowledgeandPower6:InDefenseofToday’sYouth

Notes

Acknowledgments

InDefenseofaLiberalEducation

1

ComingtoAmerica

IFYOUWANTtoliveagoodlifethesedays,youknowwhatyou’resupposedtodo.Getintocollegebutthendropout.Spendyourdayslearningcomputerscienceandyournightscoding.Startatechnologycompanyandtakeitpublic.That’sthenewAmericandream.Ifyou’renotquitethatadventurous,youcouldmajorinelectricalengineering.

Whatyouarenotsupposedtodoisstudytheliberalarts.Aroundtheworld,theideaofabroad-based“liberal”educationiscloselytiedtotheUnitedStatesanditsgreatuniversitiesandcolleges.ButinAmericaitself,aliberaleducationisoutoffavor.Inanagedefinedbytechnologyandglobalization,everyoneistalkingaboutskills-basedlearning.Politicians,businesspeople,andevenmanyeducatorsseeitastheonlywayforthenationtostaycompetitive.Theyurgestudentstostopdreamingandstartthinkingpracticallyabouttheskillstheywillneedintheworkplace.Anopen-endedexplorationofknowledgeisseenasaroadtonowhere.

Aclassicliberaleducationhasfewdefenders.Conservativesfumethatitistoo,well,liberal(thoughthetermhasnopartisanmeaning).Liberalsworryitistooelitist.Studentswonderwhattheywoulddowithadegreeinpsychology.Andparentsfearthatitwillcostthemtheirlifesavings.

Thisgrowinguneaseisapparentinthenumbers.Ascollegeenrollmenthasgrowninrecentdecades,thepercentageofstudentsmajoringinsubjectslikeEnglishandphilosophyhasdeclinedsharply.In1971,forexample,7.6percentofallbachelor’sdegreeswereawardedinEnglishlanguageandliterature.By2012,thatnumberhadfallento3.0percent.Duringthesameperiod,thepercentageofbusinessmajorsintheundergraduatepopulationrosefrom13.7to

20.5.Somebelievethispatternmakessense—thatnewentrantsintohigher

educationmightsimplypreferjobtrainingtotheliberalarts.Perhaps.Butinearlierperiodsofeducationalexpansion,thiswasnotthecase.Inthe1950sand1960s,forinstance,studentssawcollegeasmorethanaglorifiedtradeschool.Newcomers,oftenfromlower-middle-classbackgroundsandimmigrantfamilieswithlittleeducation,enthusiasticallyembracedtheliberalarts.Theysawitasagatewaytoacareer,andalsoasawaytoassimilateintoAmericanculture.“IhavetospeakabsolutelyperfectEnglish,”saysPhilipRoth’scharacterAlexPortnoy,thesonofimmigrantsandheroofthenovelPortnoy’sComplaint.MajorslikeEnglishandhistorygrewinpopularitypreciselyduringthedecadesofmassgrowthinAmericanhighereducation.

ThegreatdangerfacingAmericanhighereducationisnotthattoomanystudentsarestudyingtheliberalarts.Herearethedata.Inthe2011–12academicyear,52percentofAmericanundergraduateswereenrolledintwo-yearorless-than-two-yearcolleges,and48percentwereenrolledinfour-yearinstitutions.Attwo-yearcolleges,themostpopularareaofstudywashealthprofessionsandrelatedsciences(23.3percent).Anadditional11.7percentofstudentsstudiedbusiness,management,andmarketing.Atfour-yearcolleges,thepatternwasthesame.Businessledthelistofmajors,accountingfor18.9percentofstudents,andhealthwassecond,accountingfor13.4percent.Anotherestimatefoundthatonlyathirdofallbachelor’sdegreerecipientsstudyfieldsthatcouldbeclassifiedastheliberalarts.Andonlyabout1.8percentofallundergraduatesattendclassicliberalartscollegeslikeAmherst,Swarthmore,andPomona.

Asyoucansee,wedonothaveanoversupplyofstudentsstudyinghistory,literature,philosophy,orphysicsandmathforthatmatter.Amajorityisspecializinginfieldsbecausetheyseethemasdirectlyrelatedtothejobmarket.It’struethatmoreAmericansneedtechnicaltraining,andallAmericansneedgreaterscientificliteracy.Butthedrumbeatoftalkaboutskillsandjobshasnotluredpeopleintoengineeringandbiology—noteveryonehastheaptitudeforscience—somuchasithasmadethemnervouslyforsakethehumanitiesandtakecoursesinbusinessandcommunications.Manyofthesestudentsmightwellhavebeenbetterofftakingaricher,deepersetofcoursesinsubjectstheyfoundfascinating—andsupplementingit,asweallshould,withsomebasicknowledgeofcomputersandmath.Inanyevent,whatisclearisthatthegapintechnicaltrainingisnotbeingcausedbythesmallpercentageofstudentswhochoosefour-yeardegreesintheliberalarts.

Whateverthefacts,theassaultscontinueandhavemovedfromtherealmofrhetorictoaction.ThegovernorsofTexas,Florida,NorthCarolina,andWisconsinhaveannouncedthattheydonotintendtokeepsubsidizingtheliberalartsatstate-fundeduniversities.“Isitavitalinterestofthestatetohavemoreanthropologists?”Florida’sRickScottasked.“Idon’tthinkso.”Wisconsinisplanningtocutmoneyfromsubjectsthatdon’ttrainstudentsforaspecificjobrightoutofcollege.“HowmanyPhDsinphilosophydoIneedtosubsidize?”theradioshowhostWilliamBennettaskedNorthCarolina’sPatrickMcCrory,asentimentwithwhichMcCroryenthusiasticallyagreed.(Ironically,BennetthimselfhasaPhDinphilosophy,whichappearstohavetrainedhimwellforhismultiplecareersingovernment,media,nonprofits,andtheprivatesector.)

Itisn’tonlyRepublicansontheoffensive.Everyone’seagertopromotethetypeofeducationthatmightleaddirectlytoajob.InaspeechinJanuary2014,PresidentBarackObamasaid,“Ipromiseyou,folkscanmakealotmore,potentially,withskilledmanufacturingorthetradesthantheymightwithanarthistorydegree.”Helaterapologizedforwhathedescribedasa“glib”comment,butObamahasexpressedsimilarsentimentsduringhispresidency.Hisconcern—thatintoday’sworld,collegegraduatesneedtofocusonthetoolsthatwillgetthemgoodjobs—issharedbymanyliberals,aswellasconservativesandindependents.TheirrelevanceofaliberaleducationisanideathathasachievedthatrarestatusinWashington:bipartisanagreement.

Theattackshaveaneffect.Thereistodayalossofcoherenceandpurposesurroundingtheideaofaliberaleducation.Itsproponentsaredefensiveaboutitsvirtues,whileitsopponentsareconvincedthatitisatbestanexpensiveluxury,atworstactivelycounterproductive.DoesitreallymakesensetostudyEnglishintheageofapps?

Inasense,thequestionisun-American.Formuchofitshistory,Americawasdistinctiveinprovidinganeducationtoallthatwasnotskillsbased.Intheircomprehensivestudyofeducation,theHarvardeconomistsClaudiaGoldinandLawrenceKatznotethat,historically,Britain,France,andGermanytestedchildrenatayoungage,educatedonlyafew,andputthemthroughanarrowprogramdesignedspecificallytoimpartasetofskillsthoughttobekeytotheirprofessions.“TheAmericansystem,”theywrite,“canbecharacterizedasopen,forgiving,lackinguniversalstandards,andhavinganacademicyetpracticalcurriculum.”AmericadidnotembracetheEuropeanmodelofspecifictrainingandapprenticeshipsbecauseAmericansmovedconstantly,tonewcities,counties,andterritoriesinsearchofnewopportunities.Theywerenotrootedin

geographiclocationswithlong-establishedtradesandguildsthatofferedtheonlypathforward.Theywerealsopartofaneconomythatwasnewanddynamic,sothattechnologykeptchangingthenatureofworkandwithittherequirementsforjobs.Fewwantedtolockthemselvesintoasingleindustryforlife.Finally,GoldinandKatzargue,whileageneraleducationwasmoreexpensivethanspecializedtraining,thecostfortheformerwasnotpaidbystudentsortheirparents.TheUnitedStateswasthefirstcountrytopubliclyfundmass,generaleducation,firstatthesecondary-schoollevelandthenincollege.Evennow,highereducationinAmericaisamuchbroaderandricheruniversethananywhereelse.TodayahighschoolstudentcangotooneoffourteenhundredinstitutionsintheUnitedStatesthatofferatraditionalbachelor’sdegree,andanotherfifteenhundredwithamorelimitedcourseofstudy.GoldinandKatzpointoutthatonapercapitabasis,BritainhasonlyhalfasmanyundergraduateinstitutionsandGermanyjustone-third.ThosewhoseektoreorientU.S.highereducationintosomethingmorefocusedandtechnicalshouldkeepinmindthattheywouldbeabandoningwhathasbeenhistoricallydistinctive,evenunique,intheAmericanapproachtohighereducation.

Andyet,Igetit.IunderstandAmerica’scurrentobsession.IgrewupinIndiainthe1960sand1970s,whenaskills-basededucationwasseenastheonlypathtoagoodcareer.Indiansinthosedayshadanalmostmysticalfaithinthepoweroftechnology.Ithadbeenembeddedinthecountry’sDNAsinceitgainedindependencein1947.JawaharlalNehru,India’sfirstprimeminister,wasferventinhisfaithinbigengineeringprojects.HebelievedthatIndiacouldmoveoutofitseconomicbackwardnessonlybyembracingtechnology,andhedideverythinghecouldduringhisfourteenyearsinofficetoleavethatstamponthenation.AFabiansocialist,NehruhadwatchedwithadmirationastheSovietUnionjump-starteditseconomyinjustafewdecadesbyfollowingsuchapath.(Leninoncefamouslyremarked,“CommunismisSovietpowerplustheelectrificationofthewholecountry.”)NehrudescribedIndia’snewhydroelectricdamsas“templesofthenewage.”

IattendedaprivatedayschoolinBombay(nowMumbai),theCathedralandJohnConnonSchool.WhenfoundedbyBritishmissionariesintheVictorianera,theschoolhadbeenimbuedwithabroad,humanisticapproachtoeducation.ItstillhadsomeofthatoutlookwhenIwasthere,butthecountry’smoodwasfeverishlypractical.The1970swasatoughdecadeeverywhereeconomically,butespeciallyinIndia.Andthoughitwasaprivateschool,thetuitionwaslow,andCathedralcateredtoabroadcrosssectionofthemiddleclass.Asaresult,all

mypeersandtheirparentswereanxiousaboutjobprospects.Theassumptionmadebyalmosteveryoneatschoolwasthatengineeringandmedicinewerethetwobestcareers.Therealquestionwas,whichonewouldyoupursue?

Atagesixteen,wehadtochooseoneofthreeacademicstreams:science,commerce,orthehumanities.Wealltookasetofboardexamsthatyear—aremnantoftheBritisheducationalmodel—thathelpeddetermineourtrajectory.Inthosedays,thechoiceswereobvious.Thesmartkidswouldgointoscience,therichkidswoulddocommerce,andthegirlswouldtakethehumanities.(ObviouslyI’mexaggerating,butnotbythatmuch.)Withoutgivingthetopicmuchthought,Istreamedintothesciences.

Attheendoftwelfthgrade,wetookanothersetofexams.Thesewerethebigones.Theydeterminedoureducationalfuture,aswewereremindedagainandagain.Gradesinschool,classparticipation,extracurricularprojects,andteachers’recommendations—allweredeemedirrelevantcomparedtotheexamscores.Almostallcollegesadmittedstudentsbasedsolelyonthesenumbers.Infact,engineeringcollegesaskedforscoresinonlythreesubjects:physics,chemistry,andmathematics.Similarly,medicalschoolswouldaskforresultsinjustphysics,chemistry,andbiology.NoonecaredwhatyougotinEnglishliterature.TheIndianInstitutesofTechnology(IITs)—themostprestigiousengineeringcollegesinthecountry—narrowedtheadmissionscriteriaevenfurther.Theyadministeredtheirownentrancetest,choosingapplicantsentirelyonthebasisofitsresults.

Theincreasedemphasisontechnologyandpracticalityinthe1970swasinpartduetodomesticfactors:inflationhadsoared,theeconomyhadslumped,andtheprivatesectorwascrippledbynationalizationsandregulations.Anotherbigshift,however,tookplacefarfromIndia’sborders.Untilthe1970s,thetopBritishuniversitiesofferedscholarshipstobrightIndianstudents—alegacyoftheraj.ButasBritainwentthroughitsownhellisheconomictimesthatdecade—placedunderformalreceivershipin1979bytheInternationalMonetaryFund—moneyforforeignscholarshipsdriedup.Inanearlierera,someofthebrightestgraduatesfromIndiamighthavegoneontoOxford,Cambridge,andtheUniversityofLondon.Withoutoutsidemoneytopayforthateducation,theystayedhome.

Butculturefollowspower.AsBritain’seconomicdeclinemadeitsuniversitieslessattractive,collegesintheUnitedStateswererisinginwealthandambition.Atmyschool,peoplestartedtonoticethatAmericanuniversitieshadbegunofferinggenerousscholarshipstoforeignstudents.Andwesoon

begantohearfromearlytrailblazersaboutthedistinctlyAmericanapproachtolearning.AfriendfrommyneighborhoodwhohadgonetoCornellcamebackinthesummersburstingwithenthusiasmabouthistimethere.Hetoldusoftheincrediblevarietyofcoursesthatstudentscouldtakenomatterwhattheirmajor.Healsotoldtalesoftherichnessofcollegelife.IrememberlisteningtohimdescribeafilmsocietyatCornellthatheldscreeningsanddiscussionsofclassicsbyIngmarBergmanandFedericoFellini.IhadneverheardofBergmanorFellini,butIwasamazedthatwatchingmovieswasconsideredanintegralpartofhighereducation.Couldcollegereallybethatmuchfun?

Myparentsdidnotpushmetospecialize.Myfatherhadbeendeeplyinterestedinhistoryandpoliticseversincehewasayoungboy.Hehadbeenorphanedatayoungagebutmanagedtogetfinancialassistancethatputhimthroughhighschoolandcollege.In1944,hereceivedascholarshiptoattendtheUniversityofLondon.Hearrivedduringtheworstoftheblitzkrieg,withGermanV-2rocketsrainingdownonthecity.OnthelongboatridetoEngland,thecrewtoldhimhewascrazy.Onememberevenasked,“Haven’tyoureadthenewspapers?PeopleareleavingLondonbythethousandsrightnow.Whywouldyougothere?”Butmyfatherwasdeterminedtogetaneducation.Historywashispassion,andheworkedtowardaPhDinthatsubject.Butheneededaclearerpathtoaprofession.So,inaddition,heobtainedalawdegreethatwouldallowhimtobecomeabarristeruponhisreturntoBombay.

Thoughmymotherwasraisedinbettercircumstances,shealsofacedasetbackatayoungage—herfatherdiedwhenshewaseight.ShebrieflyattendedacollegeunusualforIndiaatthetime—aliberalartsschoolinthenorthernpartofthecountrycalledtheIsabellaThoburnCollege,foundedin1870byanAmericanMethodistmissionaryofthatname.Thoughhereducationwascutshortwhenshereturnedhometolookafterherwidowedmother,mymotherneverforgottheplace.Sheoftenfondlyreminiscedaboutitsbroadandengagingcurriculum.

Myparents’careerswerevariedanddiverse.Myfatherstartedoutasalawyerbeforemovingintopoliticsandlaterfoundingavarietyofcolleges.Healsocreatedasmallmanufacturingcompany(topaythebills)andalwayswrotebooksandessays.Mymotherbeganasasocialworkerandthenbecameajournalist,workingfornewspapersandmagazines.(Sheresignedfromherlastpositioninjournalismlastyear,2014,attheageofseventy-eight.)Neitheroftheminsistedonearlyspecialization.Inretrospect,myparentsmusthaveworriedaboutourfutureprospects—everyoneelsewasworried.Buttoourgood

fortune,theydidnotprojectthatparticularanxietyonus.Mybrother,Arshad,tookthefirstbigstep.HewastwoyearsolderthanIand

fantasticallyaccomplishedacademically.(Hewasalsoaverygoodathlete,whichmadefollowinginhisfootstepschallenging.)Hehadthekindofscoresonhisboardexamsthatwouldhaveeasilyplacedhiminthetopengineeringprogramsinthecountry.OrhecouldhavetakentheIITexam,whichhecertainlywouldhaveaced.Infact,hedecidednottodoanyofthatandinsteadappliedtoAmericanuniversities.Acoupleofhisfriendsconsidereddoingthesame,butnoonequiteknewhowtheprocessworked.Welearned,forexample,thatapplicantshadtotakesomethingcalledtheScholasticAptitudeTest,butwedidn’tknowmuchaboutit.(Remember,thisis1980inIndia.TherewasnoGoogle.Infact,therewasnocolortelevision.)WefoundapamphletaboutthetestattheUnitedStatesInformationService,theculturalbranchoftheU.S.embassy.ItsaidthatbecausetheSATwasanaptitudetest,therewasnoneedtostudyforit.So,mybrotherdidn’t.Onthedaythetestwasscheduled,hewalkedintothemakeshiftexamcenterinBombay,analmostemptyroominoneofthelocalcolleges,andtookthetest.

It’sdifficulttoconvincepeopletodayhownovelandriskyanideaitwasatthetimetoapplytoschoolsintheUnitedStates.Thesystemwasstillforeignanddistant.Peopledidn’treallyknowwhatitmeanttogetintoagoodAmericanuniversityorhowthatwouldtranslateintoacareerinIndia.TheHarvardalumniinBombayinthe1970swerebynomeansa“Who’sWho”oftheinfluentialandwealthy.Rather,theywereaneclecticmixofpeoplewhoeitherhadspenttimeabroad(becausetheirparentshadforeignpostings)orhadsomeconnectiontoAmerica.AfewfriendsofourshadventuredtotheUnitedStatesalready,butbecausetheyhadn’tyetgraduatedorlookedforjobs,theirexperienceswereoflittleguidance.

MybrotherhadnoideaiftheadmissionsdepartmentsatAmericancollegeswouldunderstandtheIndiansystemorknowhowtointerprethisreportcardsandrecommendations.HealsohadnorealPlanB.Ifhedidn’ttaketheslotofferedbyengineeringschools,hewouldn’tbeabletogetbackinlinethenextyear.Infact,thingsweresouncleartousthatwedidn’tevenrealizeAmericancollegesrequiredapplicationsafullyearinadvance.Asaresult,heinvoluntarilytookagapyearbetweenschoolandcollege,waitingaroundtofindoutwhetherhegotinanywhere.

Asithappened,Arshadgotineverywhere.Hepickedthetopoftheheap—acceptingascholarshipofferfromHarvard.Whilewewereallthrilledand

impressed,manyfriendsremainedapprehensivewhentoldthenews.ItsoundedprestigioustosayyouweregoingtoattendHarvard,butwouldtheeducationactuallytranslateintoacareer?

MymothertraveledtotheUnitedStatestodropmybrotheroffinthefallof1981,anuneasytimeinAmericanhistory.Themoodwasstillmore1970smalaisethan1980sboom.ThecountrywasinthemidstoftheworstrecessionsincetheGreatDepression.VietnamandWatergatehadshatteredthenation’sconfidence.TheSovietUnionwasseenasascendantinourminds.Riots,protests,andurbanviolencehadturnedAmericancitiesintoplacesofgenuinedanger.OurimagesofNewYorkcamefromCharlesBronsonmoviesandnewsreportsofcrackandcrime.

AllofthiswasespeciallyalarmingtoIndians.Thecountry’straditionalsocietyhadinterpretedthe1960sand1970sasaperiodofdecayinAmericanculture,asyoungpeoplebecamemorallylax,self-indulgent,permissive,and,perhapsmostworrisome,rebellious.TheideathatAmericanyouthhadbecomedisrespectfultowardtheirelderswasutterlyunnervingtoIndianparents.MostbelievedthatanychildwhotraveledtotheUnitedStateswouldquicklycastasidefamily,faith,andtraditionforsex,drugs,androckandroll.IfyousentyourkidstoAmerica,youhadtobraceyourselvesfortheprospectthatyoumight“lose”them.

Inhisfirstfewweeksabroad,Arshadwas,probablylikeallnewcomerstoHarvard,abitnervous.Mymother,ontheotherhand,returnedfromhertripclearofanyanxiety.ShewasenchantedwiththeUnitedStates,itscollegecampuses,andtheundergraduateexperience.SheturnedherobservationsintoanarticlefortheTimesofIndiatitled“TheOtherAmerica.”Init,shedescribedhowconcernedshehadbeenbeforethetripaboutpermissiveness,drugs,andrebellionatAmericancolleges.Shethenwentontoexplainhowimpressedshewasafteractuallyspendingtimeonacampustofindthattheplacefocusedoneducation,hardwork,andextracurricularactivities.Thestudentsshemetwerebright,motivated,and,tohersurprise,quiterespectful.Shemetparentswhoweretearfullybiddingtheirchildrengood-bye,talkingabouttheirnextvisit,orplanningaThanksgivingreunion.“IfeelIaminIndia,”shewrote.“CouldthisbetheheartlessAmericawherefamilytieshavelosttheirhold?”

IndianshaditallwrongabouttheUnitedStates,mymothercontinued.Shetriedtoexplainwhytheyreadsomuchbadnewsaboutthecountry.“Americaisanopensocietyasnoother.Sotheyexposetheir‘failings’tooasnoother,”shewrote.“[Americans]cheerfullyjoininthetalkoftheirowndecline.Butthe

declineisrelativetoAmerica’sownpreviousstrength.Itremainstheworld’slargesteconomy;itstilldisposesofthegreatestmilitarymighttheworldhasknown;refugeesfromterrorstillcontinuetoseekshelterinthislandofimmigrants.Itspendsmillionsofdollarsinthehopethatsomeone,somewheremaymakeavaluablecontributiontoknowledge.AmericaremainstheyardstickbywhichwejudgeAmerica.”Asyoucansee,shewashooked.

Inthoseyears,itwasfashionableineliteIndiancirclestodenouncetheUnitedStatesforitsimperialismandhegemony.DuringtheColdWar,theIndiangovernmentroutinelysidedwiththeSovietUnion.IndiraGandhi,thepopulistprimeminister,wouldoftenblameIndia’stroublesonthe“foreignhand,”areferencetotheCIA.Butmymotherhasalwaysbeenstubbornlypro-American.Whenmyfatherwasalive,hewouldsometimescriticizeAmericaforitscrimesandblunders,partlytoneedlemybrotherandmeandpartlybecause,asonewhohadstruggledforIndia’sindependence,hehadabsorbedtheworldviewofhisclosestallies,whowereallontheleft.Yetmymotherremainedunmoved,completelyconvincedthattheUnitedStateswasalandofamazingvitalityandvirtue.(Isuspectit’swhathashelpedheracceptthefactthathersonschosethecountryastheirhome.)

Alongwithphotographsandinformationbrochuresfromhertrip,mymotheralsobroughtbackHarvard’scoursebook.Forme,itwasanastonishingdocument.Insteadofathinpamphletcontainingadrylistofsubjects,asonewouldfindatIndianuniversities,itwasabulgingvolumeoverflowingwithideas.Itlistedhundredsofclassesinallkindsoffields.Andthecoursedescriptionswerewrittenlikeadvertisements—asiftheteacherswantedyoutojointhemonanintellectualadventure.Ireadthroughthebook,amazedthatstudentsdidn’thavetochooseamajorinadvanceandthattheycouldtakepoetryandphysicsandhistoryandeconomics.Fromeightthousandmilesaway,withlittleknowledgeandnoexperience,Iwasfallinginlovewiththeideaofaliberaleducation.

Idecidedtofollowinmybrother’sfootstepsanddidn’tpursuetheIndianoptionsavailabletome.ItooktheSATandwrotetherequiredessaysandapplications.IfyouhadaskedmewhyIwassodeterminedtogototheUnitedStates,Icouldn’thavegivenyouacoherentresponse.Indianuniversitiesseemedlimitingandlimited.IthoughtaboutapplyingtoBritishuniversities,butIwouldhaveneededascholarshipandfewexisted.Theideaof“reading”justonesubjectatOxfordoranarrowsetofsubjectsatCambridgeseemedlessinterestingwhencomparedwiththedazzlingarrayofopportunitiesattheIvy

Leagueschools.And,ofcourse,therewastheallureofAmerica.IhadalwaysbeenfascinatedbyAmerica.Ihadvisitedonceasateenager,

butmostofmyknowledgeaboutthecountrycamefromHollywood.WhiletheIndianmarketwastoopooranddistanttogetanynewlyreleasedmovies,wewatchedtheoneswewouldget,afewyearsdelayed—anythingfromThePoseidonAdventuretoKramervs.Kramer—aswellasoldclassics,liketheLaurelandHardycomedies,whichIloved.Televisionarrivedinthecountryinthemid-1970s,initiallywithjustonegovernment-runblack-and-whitechannelthatmostlyaireddocumentariesonthegloriesofIndianagriculture.EverySundaynight,myfamilywouldgatheraroundthetelevisionsettowatchtheoneunadulteratedpieceofentertainmentitwouldair,aBollywoodmovie.PrecedingthatwasasingleepisodeofILoveLucy,presumablyallthatIndiantelevisioncouldaffordtoimportfromtheUnitedStates.Everyonewatcheditwithpleasure,laughingalongwithLucyandhercrazyfamily.Tothisday,Ihaveasoftspotforthatshow.

Bythelate1970s,technologyhadbeguntobringmoreoftheWesttoIndia.Afewofmyfriendshadvideorecorders,andafterawhile,sodidwe.ItwasimpossibletoacquireactualcopiesofAmericanmoviesandshows,butwedidgetmanybootleggedversions.SomewhereintheUnitedStates,arelativewouldtapethelatesttelevisionshowsandsendthemtothefamilybackhome.ThesebootleggedBetamaxtapeswouldbepassedaroundinBombaylikesamizdatpublicationsintheSovietUnion.

ThehottestshowatthetimewasDallas,whichwealldevoured.ThescenesduringtheopeningcreditsweremywindowintotheAmericandream:shiningshotsofgleamingskyscrapers,helicopterslandinginofficeparks,meninten-gallonhatsgettinginandoutofcavernousCadillacs.AndVictoriaPrincipal—shewascertainlypartofmyAmericandream.WhateverthenewspaperssaidaboutproblemsintheUnitedStates,whocouldbelieveitwiththeseimagesflashingacrossthescreen?Americaseemedvast,energetic,andwealthy.EverythinghappenedinTechnicolorthere.

TheU.S.InformationService,setuptopromoteAmericancultureandideasduringtheColdWar,wouldholdscreeningsofolderAmericanclassics.AfriendandIwouldoftenattendtheseshowings.There,inasmallroominBombay,sittingamidagingexpats,IwasintroducedtoHollywood’sgoldenage.Ikeptascrapbookonthesemovies,fromItHappenedOneNighttoAdamandEvetoHowtheWestWasWon.Inasense,theyweremyfirstrealintroductiontoAmericanhistory.Andtheyaddedtomysenseofthecountryastheworld’s

mostexcitingplace.Letmebehonest,though:whilethesoftattractionwasgreat,sowasthecold

cash.Myparentswerewell-paidprofessionals,butIndiawasoneofthepoorestcountriesintheworld.Theirannualsalariescombinedwouldhaveequaledjusthalfofoneyear’stuitionabroad.Atthetime,Americancollegesdidnotofferneed-blindadmissionstoforeignstudentslikeme—theschoolsallhadmuchsmallerendowmentsinthosedays—buttheydiddistributemeritscholarships.Andifyouwereadmitted,theyworkedoutacombinationofgrants,loans,andon-campusjobsthatwouldallowyoutoattend.Mybrother’sreportsfromHarvardwerethatbetweenhisscholarshipandacampusjob,hewasmakingdoquitewell.Heevenhadenoughmoneyforbooksandincidentalexpenses.YetrealizingthatIneedednotonlyadmissionbutalsoascholarshipaddedtomyanxiety.

IgotveryluckyandendedupgoingtoYale.IhavenoideawhytheyletmeinorwhyIchosetogothere.Imarveltodayatcollege-boundAmericankidswhotaketwoorthreetripstocampuses,sitinonclasses,havelongdiscussionswithcounselors,andwatchstudenttheaterproductions—alltodecidewheretogotocollege.Incomparison,Imadeanutterlyuninformedchoicefromhalfwayaroundtheworld.Ididn’tgetintoHarvard,butIwasfortunatetobeabletochoosebetweenPrincetonandYaleandcouldn’treallydecide.Iknewlittleabouteither.IfImadealistofeachuniversity’sobjectivemerits,whichIdid,Princetonusuallycameoutontop.Itwassmallerandricherandhadofferedmeabiggerscholarship.EveryonehadheardofitinIndiabecauseofAlbertEinstein.VeryfewknewofYale.Thisseemshardtobelieve,butYalereallywasquiteobscureinIndia.Myfather,likemanyIndians,couldn’tpronouncethename,andtohisdyingdayhecalledit“Ale.”Ingeneral,AmericanuniversitiesthathavegreatnamerecognitioninIndia—andinAsiamoregenerally—arethosewithstrongengineeringprograms,sciencedepartments,andbusinessschools.ThesewerenotYale’sstrengths.

Eventually,IdecidedtousetheonlymechanismIcouldthinkof:acointoss.Heads,IwouldgotoYale;tails,IwouldgotoPrinceton.Iflippedthecoin.Itwastails.SoIdecidedtomakeita“bestofthree”andtossedagain.Idon’trememberifYalewonthecointossatthatpointorifIkeptgoinguntilitdid.Butindoingtheexercise,IrealizedthatIwantedtogotoYale.Idon’tquiteknowwhy.Itisanexampleofthepowerofintuition.Thoughobviouslybotharegreatinstitutions,Yalewastheperfectplaceforme.IknewsomethingatthetimethatIcouldn’texplainorevenunderstand.

Yaleofferedthen,andstilldoesnow,arigorousfirst-yearacademicprogramcalledDirectedStudies.ItisasweepingsurveyoftheWesternliteraryandphilosophicaltraditionfromancientGreecetomodernity.ThisseemedlikeawonderfulopportunityforakidfromIndia.ItwouldhaveintroducedmetoanumberofgreatWesternclassicsthatIhadheardaboutbutneverread.Youhadtoapplytobeabletotakethecourses,whichIdid.Somemonthslater,IwasthrilledtogetanoteinformingmethatIhadbeenacceptedintotheprogram.

Ichickenedout.WhenIgottoYale,itwastimeformetofinalizemychoices.ItalliedupthesubjectsthatIbelievedIhadtotake—courseslikemath,computerprogramming,andphysics—andrealizedthatifIweregoingtoenrollinDirectedStudies,itwouldfillupmostofmyschedule.Ipanickedattheideaofcommittingsocompletelytosomethingthatseemedsoimpractical.Irememberthinkingtomyself,“WhenpeopleaskmeinIndiaoverthesummeraboutmycourses,Icouldtalkaboutcomputersandmath.HowwouldIexplainthis?”SoIdroppedDirectedStudiesandsignedupforcoursesthatseemedmoresensible.

Inmyfirstyear,however,Iallowedmyselftopickoneclasssimplyoutofsheerinterest.ThecoursewasapopularlectureonthehistoryoftheColdWar,taughtbyapoliticalscienceprofessornamedH.BradfordWesterfield.Hislectureswerepackedwithvividdetailsanddeliveredwithgusto.Iwashooked.

Internationalpoliticsandeconomicshadalwaysappealedtome.AsateenagerinIndia,Iwouldavidlyreadthemajorinternationalnewspapersandmagazines,whichsometimesarrivedweeksaftertheywerepublished.Thegreatglobaldramaofthetimeswastheclashofthesuperpowers,anditechoedinIndia,acountrythatwastornbetweenthetwocamps.IrememberdevouringtheexcerptsofHenryKissinger’smemoirswhentheycameout,thoughI’msureIdidn’tunderstandthem.(Iwasfifteenatthetime.)YetIneverthoughtthatonestudiedthesekindsofsubjectsincollege.IhadassumedthatIwouldmajorinsomethingthatwaspractical,technical,andjoboriented.Icouldalwaysreadnewspapersontheside.Westerfield’scourse,however,mademerealizethatIshouldtakemypassionseriously,evenwithoutbeingsurewhatitmightleadtointermsofaprofession.Thatspring,Ideclaredmymajorinhistory.Iwasgoingtogetaliberaleducation.

Butstill,Icouldn’thaveansweredthequestion,whatisaliberaleducation?

2

ABriefHistoryofLiberalEducation

FORMOSTOFhumanhistory,educationwasjobtraining.Hunters,farmers,andwarriorstaughttheyoungtohunt,farm,andfight.Childrenoftherulingclassreceivedinstructionintheartsofwarandgovernance,butthistoowasintendedfirstandforemostaspreparationfortherolestheywouldassumelaterinsociety,notforanybroaderpurpose.Allthatbegantochangetwenty-fivehundredyearsagoinancientGreece.

Priortothechange,educationinGreecehadcenteredonthedevelopmentofarête,roughlymeaningexcellenceorvirtue.ThescholarBruceKimballnotesthatthecourseofstudylargelyinvolvedthememorizationandrecitationofHomericepicpoetry.*Throughimmersionintheworldofgodsandgoddesses,kingsandwarriors,childrenwouldmastertheGreeklanguageandimbibethelessons,codes,andvaluesconsideredimportantbytherulingelite.PhysicaltrainingwasacrucialelementofGreekeducation.Inthecity-stateofSparta,themostextremeexampleofthisfocus,youngboysconsideredweakatbirthwereabandonedtodie.Therestweresenttogruelingbootcamps,wheretheyweretoughenedintoSpartansoldiersfromanearlyage.

AroundthefifthcenturyBC,someGreekcity-states,mostnotablyAthens,begantoexperimentwithanewformofgovernment.“Ourconstitutioniscalledademocracy,”theAthenianstatesmanPericlesnotedinhisfuneraloration,“becausepowerisinthehandsnotofaminoritybutofthewholepeople.”Thisinnovationingovernmentrequiredasimultaneousinnovationineducation.Basicskillsforsustenancewerenolongersufficient—citizensalsohadtobeproperlytrainedtoruntheirownsociety.ThelinkbetweenabroadeducationandlibertybecameimportanttotheGreeks.Describingthisapproachto

instructioncenturieslater,theRomanscoinedatermforit:a“liberal”education,usingthewordliberalinitsoriginalLatinsense,“oforpertainingtofreemen.”Morethantwothousandyearslater,FrederickDouglasssawthesameconnection.WhenhismasterheardthatyoungFrederickwasreadingwell,hewasfurious,saying,“Learningwillspoilthebestniggerintheworld.IfhelearnstoreadtheBibleitwillforeverunfithimtobeaslave.”Douglassrecalledthathe“instinctivelyassentedtotheproposition,andfromthatmomentIunderstoodthedirectpathwayfromslaverytofreedom.”

Fromthebeginning,peopledisagreedoverthepurposeofaliberaleducation.(Perhapsintellectualdisagreementisinherentintheideaitself.)ThefirstgreatdividetookplaceinancientGreece,betweenPlato,thephilosopher,andIsocrates,theorator.Platoandhisfollowers,includingAristotle,considerededucationasearchfortruth.InspiredbySocrates,theyusedthedialecticmodeofreasoninganddiscoursetopursueknowledgeinitspurestform.Isocrates,ontheotherhand,hearkenedbacktothetraditionofarête.Heandhisfollowersbelievedapersoncouldbestarriveatvirtueandmakeagoodlivingbystudyingtheartsofrhetoric,language,andmorality.Thisdebate—betweenthosewhounderstandliberaleducationininstrumentaltermsandthosewhoseeitasanendinandofitself—hascontinuedtothepresentday.

Ingeneral,themorepracticalrationaleforliberaleducationgainedtheupperhandintheancientworld.Yetthetwotraditionshaveneverbeenmutuallyexclusive.TheRomanstatesmanandphilosopherCicero,oneoftheearliestwritersonrecordtousethetermartesliberales,wantedtocombinethesearchfortruthwithrhetoric,whichwasseenasamoreusefulskill.“Foritisfromknowledgethatoratorymustderiveitsbeautyandfullness,”thephilosopher-statesmanwrotearound55AD.Whiledebatecontinues,therealityisthatliberaleducationhasalwayscombinedamixtureofbothapproaches—practicalandphilosophical.

Sciencewascentraltoliberaleducationfromthestart.Exceptthatinthosedays,thereasontostudyitwasthepreciseoppositeofwhatisarguedtoday.Intheancientworld,andformanycenturiesthereafter,sciencewasseenasapathtoabstractknowledge.Ithadnopracticalpurpose.Humanisticsubjects,likelanguageandhistory,ontheotherhand,equippedtheyoungtofunctionwellintheworldaspoliticians,courtiers,lawyers,andmerchants.AndyettheGreeksandRomansstudiedgeometryandastronomyalongsiderhetoricandgrammar.InthefirstcenturyBC,thisdualisticapproachtoeducationwas“finallyanddefinitivelyformalized”intoasystemdescribedas“thesevenliberalarts.”The

curriculumwassplitbetweenscienceandhumanities,thetheoreticalandthepractical.Centurieslater,itwasoftendividedintotwosubgroups:thetrivium—grammar,logic,andrhetoric—wastaughtfirst;thequadrivium—arithmetic,geometry,music,andastronomy—camenext.

Soldiersandstatesmen,naturally,placedgreateremphasisonsubjectstheythoughtofaspractical—whattodaywewouldcallthehumanities.Butevenso,theideaofabroadereducationalwayspersisted.Intheeighthcentury,Charlemagne,kingoftheFranks(aGermanictribethatinhabitedlargechunksofpresent-dayGermany,France,Belgium,Netherlands,andLuxembourg),consolidatedhisempire.BruceKimballnotesthatCharlemagnethenestablishedapalaceschoolandnamedasitsmasterAlcuin,anEnglishscholar(eventhenEnglishmenweretheidealheadmasters).Alcuinandhisfollowersconcentratedongrammarandtextualanalysisanddemotedmathematics,buttheycontinuedtoteachsomeversionoftheliberalarts.Andthedeeperquestforunderstandingneverdisappeared.EvenduringtheDarkAges,medievalmonasterieskeptaliveatraditionoflearningandinquiry.

WhydidEuropeanlearningmovebeyondmonasteries?OneinfluencemighthavebeenIslam,themostadvancedcivilizationintheMiddleAges—somethingdifficulttoimaginetoday.WithintheworldofIslamthereweredozensofmadrasas—schoolswherehistory,politics,science,music,andmanyothersubjectswerestudiedandwhereresearchwaspursued(thoughnotallIslamiceducationalinstitutionswerecalledmadrasas).Islamiclearningproducedinnovations,especiallyinthestudyofmathematics.AlgebracomesfromtheArabphraseal-jabr,meaning“thereunionofbrokenparts.”ThenameofthePersianscholaral-KhwārizmīwastranslatedintoLatinasalgoritmi,whichbecame“algorithm.”Bytheeleventhcentury,Cairo’sal-AzharandBaghdad’sNizamiyahwerefamousacrosstheworldfortheiracademicaccomplishments,asweremanyothercentersoflearningintheArabworld.ThisIslamicinfluencefoundahomeintheMuslimregionsofcontinentalEuropeaswell,inthemadrasasofMoorishSpain,inGranada,Córdoba,Seville,andelsewhere.

BythelateMiddleAges,Europe’sstagnationwasending.Theexpansioninglobaltradeandtravelmeantthatitsleadersneededgreaterknowledgeandexpertiseinareaslikegeography,law,andscience.Ascity-statescompetedwithoneanothereconomically,theysoughtoutindividualswithbetterskillsandeducation.Becauseofitslongcoastline,Italybecameaplacewherecommerce,trade,andcapitalismwerebeginningtostir.GroupsofscholarsstartedcomingtogetherinvariousItaliancitiestostudytheology,canonandcivillaw,andother

subjects.Thesescholarscamefromgreatdistancesandwereoftengroupedbytheirgeographicalorigins,eachonebeingcalleda“nation,”anearlyuseoftheword.Someofthese“nations”hiredlocalscholars,administeredexams,andjoinedtogetherintogroupsthatcametobecalleduniversitas.Theseorganizationssoughtandweregrantedspecialprotectionsfromlocallaws,thusallowingthemnecessaryfreedomsandautonomy.

In1088,Europe’sfirstuniversitywasfoundedinBologna.Overthenextcentury,similarinstitutionssproutedupinParis,Oxford,Cambridge,andPadua.By1300,westernEuropewashometobetweenfifteenandtwentyuniversities.Theseschoolswereinitiallynotbastionsoffreeinquiry,buttheydidbecomeplaceswherescholarsdiscussedsometaboosubjects,recovered,translated,andstudiedAristotle’swritings,andsubjectedlawstoclosescrutiny.Yetmostresearchtookplaceoutsideofuniversitiesinthosedaysbecauseoftheirreligiousinfluence.Itwasheretical,forinstance,forscientiststospeculateonearth’splaceamidthestars.Inmostcities,whilestudentswereaccordedsomeofthesamefreedomsandexemptionsastheclergy,theydesiredevenmore.TheUniversityofPadua’smottowasUniversauniversispatavinalibertas—“Paduanfreedomisuniversalforeveryone.”

Inthefourteenthcentury,thebalancebetweenpracticalandphilosophicalknowledgeshiftedagain.SomeItalianscholarsandwritersbelievedthatuniversitieshadbecometoospecialized.TheylookedtoreturnEuropeaneducationtoitsGreekandRomanroots.Thesehumanistsrejectedthehighlydetailed,scholasticapproachtolearningandtheologythatwaspervasiveinmedievaluniversities.Instead,asthelatescholarPaulOskarKristellernotes,theyencourageda“revivalofartsandofletters,ofeloquenceandoflearning”that“ledtoanewandintensifiedstudyofancientliteratureandhistory.”Overthenexttwocenturies,whathasbeencalledRenaissancehumanismspreadtotherestofEurope.

Thesetraditionsofscholarship,however,didnotcreatetheexperiencewenowthinkofasaliberaleducation.Thatmoderntraditionhadlesstodowithuniversitiesandmorewithcolleges.And“collegeasweknowit,”writesColumbiaUniversityprofessorAndrewDelbanco,“isafundamentallyEnglishidea.”†TheearliestEnglishcollegeswerefoundedinthethirteenthcenturyforscholarsofdivinitywhoseduties,Delbanconotes,“includedcelebratingmassforthesoulofthebenefactorwhohadendowedthecollegeandtherebysparedthemfrommenialwork.”Religiousinfluenceswerestrong—thepubliclecture,forinstance,wasasecularoutgrowthoftheSundaysermon—thoughthe

curriculumwasvariedandincludednon-theologicalsubjects.Collegesgrewmoresecularbythenineteenthcenturyasseminariesassumed

responsibilityfortrainingministers.TheyalsobegantodevelopacharacterdistinctfromEuropeanuniversities,whichwerebecomingincreasinglyfocusedonresearch,especiallyinGermany.Unlikeuniversities,whichoftenlackedaclearphysicalembodiment,collegesweredefinedbytheirarchitecture.Animposingstonebuildingwasusuallyconstructedwithanopencourtyardinthecenterandstudentdormitoriesarrayedaroundit.The“common”roomwaswherestudentscouldmeet,thechapelwheretheycouldpray,andthelibrarywheretheycouldread.ThismodelofaresidentialcollegeoriginatedinEnglandandspreadtotheAnglo-Americanworld,whereitremainsthedistinctiveformforundergraduates.

Intheearlytwentiethcentury,amongthemajoruniversities,HarvardandYaleadoptedthefull-fledgedresidentialcollegemodelforstudenthousing,partlyinanefforttoretaintheintimatesettingofliberalartscollegeswhilepursuingtheirambitionstobecomegreatresearchuniversities.Theresidentialcollegehascometobeseenaspossessingcertainqualitiesthatenhancetheexperienceofliberaleducationbeyondthecurriculum.Theadvantagesofsuchanarrangementareoftendescribedtodayintermslike“living-learningexperiences,”“peer-to-peereducation,”and“laterallearning.”SamuelEliotMorison,thelegendaryhistorianofHarvard,bestdescribedthedistinctivebenefitsoftheresidentialsetting:“Booklearningalonemightbegotbylecturesandreading;butitwasonlybystudyinganddisputing,eatinganddrinking,playingandprayingasmembersofthesamecollegiatecommunity,incloseandconstantassociationwitheachotherandwiththeirtutors,thatthepricelessgiftofcharactercouldbeimparted.”Anemphasisonbuildingcharacter,stemmingfromthereligiousoriginsofcolleges,remainsanaimofliberalartscollegesalmosteverywhere,atleastintheory.

America’searliestcollegesweremodeledontheirEnglishpredecessors.ManyofthefoundersofHarvardCollege,forexample,weregraduatesofEmmanuelCollegeatCambridgeUniversity.Perhapsbecause,inAmerica,theydidnotstartoutstrictlyasseminaries,colonialcollegesoftenincorporatedintotheircurriculaavarietyofdisciplines,includingthesciences,humanities,andlaw.Studentswereexpectedtotakeallthesesubjectsandrelatethemtooneanotherbecauseitwasassumedtherewasasingle,divineintelligencebehindallofthem.InCardinalJohnNewman’snineteenth-centuryformulationofthisapproachtoeducation,“Thesubject-matterofknowledgeisintimatelyunitedin

itself,asbeingtheactsandtheworkoftheCreator.”Itwasatheologicalversionofwhatphysiciststodaycalltheunifiedfieldtheory.

America’sfirstcollegesstucktocurriculathatcouldbedescribedasGodandGreeks—theologyandclassics.Butagreatdebateoverthisapproachemergedatthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury.PeoplewonderedwhystudentsshouldberequiredtostudyancientGreekandLatin.Theysuggestedthatcollegesshouldbegintoincorporatemodernlanguagesandsubjectsintotheirinstruction.Afterall,thecountrywasgrowingrapidlyanddevelopingeconomicallyandtechnologically,makingthecollegecourseofstudyseemantiquatedincomparison.Aftermuchdeliberation,theYalefacultyissuedareportin1828defendingtheclassicalcurriculum.ItpowerfullyinfluencedAmericancollegesforhalfacentury—delaying,somemightsay,theirinevitableevolution.Italso,however,outlinedacentraltensioninliberaleducationthatpersiststillnow.

TheYalereportexplainedthattheessenceofliberaleducationwas“nottoteachthatwhichispeculiartoanyoneoftheprofessions;buttolaythefoundationwhichiscommontothemall.”Itdescribeditstwogoalsintermsthatstillresonate:trainingthemindtothinkandfillingthemindwithspecificcontent.

Thetwogreatpointstobegainedinintellectualculture,arethedisciplineandthefurnitureofthemind;expandingitspowers,andstoringitwithknowledge.Theformeroftheseis,perhaps,themoreimportantofthetwo.Acommandingobject,therefore,inacollegiatecourse,shouldbe,tocallintodailyandvigorousexercisethefacultiesofthestudent.Thosebranchesofstudyshouldbeprescribed,andthosemodesofinstructionadopted,whicharebestcalculatedtoteachtheartoffixingtheattention,directingthetrainofthought,analyzingasubjectproposedforinvestigation;following,withaccuratediscrimination,thecourseofargument;balancingnicelytheevidencepresentedtothejudgment;awakening,elevating,andcontrollingtheimagination;arranging,withskill,thetreasureswhichmemorygathers;rousingandguidingthepowersofgenius.

Thoughitsparticularaimhistoricallywastodefendtheclassicalcurriculum,theYalereport’sbroaderargumentwasthatlearningtothinkismoreimportantthanthespecifictopicsandbooksthataretaught.AHarvardmanrevivedtheargumentfiftyyearslater,ashebattledtoundothereport’srecommendations.

CharlesEliotwasanunlikelycandidateforthepresidencyofHarvard.HewasascientistatatimewhentheheadsofschoolslikeHarvard,Yale,andPrincetonwerestillgenerallyministers.AftergraduatingfromHarvardin1853,Eliotwasappointedtobeatutorandlateranassistantprofessorofmathematicsandchemistryattheschool.Buthewasnotmadeafullprofessorashehadhoped,andataboutthesametime,hisbadluckcompoundedashisfather’sfortunecollapsed.EliotdecidedtotraveltoEurope,wherehesawfirsthandthe

rapidlychangingstateofhighereducationontheContinentandtheriseofthegreatresearchuniversitiesinGermany.HethenreturnedtotheUnitedStatestotakeupaprofessorshipattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyin1865.Atthetime,likemanyothercolleges,Harvardwasinthemidstofatumultuousperiodinitshistory.ItfacedcallsformorevocationaleducationinordertoprepareAmericansfortheworkforceintherapidlyindustrializingeconomyjustemergingfromtheCivilWar.

Toaddresstheseconcerns,Eliotpennedatwo-partessayintheAtlanticMonthlytitled“TheNewEducation.”Itbeganwithwordsthatcouldbeutteredbyanyparenttoday,adjustedforgender:“WhatcanIdowithmyboy?Icanafford,andamglad,togivehimthebesttrainingtobehad.Ishouldbeproudtohavehimturnoutapreacheroralearnedman;butIdon’tthinkhehasthemakingofthatinhim.Iwanttogivehimapracticaleducation;onethatwillpreparehim,betterthanIwasprepared,tofollowmybusinessoranyotheractivecalling.”Eliot’sanswerwasthatAmericansneededtocombinethebestdevelopmentsoftheemergingEuropeanresearchuniversitywiththebesttraditionsoftheclassicAmericancollege.

EliotproposedthatAmerica’sgreatuniversitiesembracetheresearchfunction,butthattheydosoatthegraduatelevel,leavingundergraduatesfreetoexploretheirinterestsmorebroadly.Heshowedastrongunderstandingandmasteryoftheemergingtrendsineducation,likethedifferencebetweenscientificandhumanisticfieldsandtheriseintechnicaltraining.Hewantedcollegestodistinguishcarefullybetweenaskills-basedandaliberaleducation,thelatterofwhichheconsideredmoreimportant.Monthsafterhisessayswerepublished,attheageofthirty-five,CharlesEliotwasofferedthepresidencyofHarvard,apostthatheheldforfourdecades—exactly—andfromwhichhereshapedtheuniversityandthecountry.

EliotmadesomanytransformingchangesatHarvardthattheyareimpossibletorecount—heessentiallyestablishedthemodernAmericanuniversity.Yetperhapshismostinfluentialreform,atleastforundergraduates,washisadvocacyforacurriculumbasedonthe“spontaneousdiversityofchoice.”Inotherwords,underhisnewsystem,studentshadveryfewrequiredcoursesandmanyelectives.PreviouslyinAmericancolleges,muchofthecurriculumhadbeensetinstone.Studentshadenrolledincoursesandstudiedtopicsinapredeterminedsequencefromoneyeartothenext.Thefacultyhadbelieved,inthetermsoftheYalereport,thatitshouldchoose“thefurniture”thatwastoinhabitthestudents’minds.

Eliotdisagreedprofoundly.HewasprobablyinfluencedbyhisProtestantism,whichsawtheindividualasthebestmediatorofhisownfate.Butperhapsmorethananything,hewasimbuedwiththespiritofRalphWaldoEmersonandhisdistinctivelyAmericanideas,whichweredeeplyinfluentialatthetime.ForEmerson,thetaskofeveryhumanbeingwastofindhisorhervoiceandgiveexpressiontoit.“Trustthyself,”Emersonwrotein“Self-Reliance.”“Everyheartvibratestothatironstring.”Emerson’snotionoftheimportanceofauthenticity,asopposedtoimitation,andhispraiseofuniquethinkingcouldhavebeenturnedintocopyforAppleadcampaigns(“ThinkDifferent”).

Inan1885speech,Eliotoutlinedthecaseforhiselectivesystemusinglanguagethatremainsradicaltoday—andwithwhichmanyparentsmightstilldisagree.“AteighteentheAmericanboyhaspassedtheagewhenacompulsoryexternaldisciplineisuseful,”Eliotwrote.“Awell-instructedyouthofeighteencanselectforhimself—notforanyotherboy,orforthefictitiousuniversalboybutforhimselfalone—abettercourseofstudythananycollegefaculty,oranywisemanwhodoesnotknowhimandhisancestorsandhispreviouslife,canpossiblyselectforhim.”EliotbelievedthatAmericanliberaleducationshouldallowyoutochooseyourowncourses,exciteyourownimagination,andthusrealizeyourdistinctiveself.Manyrespondedthatsomesubjectsarenotworthyofbeingtaught.Thesolution,hebelieved,wastoletfacultymembersofferwhattheywantandstudentstotakewhattheylike.

Eliot’sviewswerenotsharedbymanyinfluentialeducatorsofthetime,mostnotablythepresidentofPrinceton,JamesMcCosh.(Infact,Eliot’sspeechthatIquotefromabovewasfromapublicdebatewithMcCoshonthetopicinNewYorkCity.)AScottishministerandphilosopher,McCoshthoughtthatuniversitiesshouldprovideaspecificframeworkoflearningandahierarchyofsubjectsfortheirstudents—orelsetheywerefailingintheirroleasguardians.Inparticular,religioncouldnotsimplybetreatedlikeanyothersubject,tobetakenordroppedatanundergraduate’swhim.Eliot’sideas,however,weremoreinsyncwithAmericancultureanditsemphasisonindividualismandfreedomofchoice.Overtime,theelectivesysteminsomeformoranotherhascometodominateAmericanhighereducation,withafewnotableexceptions.

Intheearlyyearsofthetwentiethcentury,aswellinthetideofimmigrantsenteringtheUnitedStatespromptedconcernamongsomecitizens,educators,andpublicofficialsthatthecountrywaslosingitscharacter.Againstthatbackdrop,anEnglishprofessoratColumbiaUniversity,JohnErskine,began

offeringatwo-yearcoursecalledGeneralHonorsin1920.Erskine“wantedtoprovideyoungpeoplefromdifferentbackgroundswithacommonculture,somethinghethoughtwasalreadythinintheUnitedStates,”writestheHarvardscholarLouisMenand.Erskinebelievedthatthebestwaytobecometrulyeducatedwastoimmerseoneselfingreatworksofthepast.

In1930,MortimerAdler,aneducatorwhohadtaughtasectioninErskine’sprogram,leftColumbiafortheUniversityofChicago.HisfriendRobertMaynardHutchinshadrecentlybeenappointedpresidentoftheschool,andthetwobeganteachingaseminartogetherforunderclassmenonclassicworksintheWesterncanon.Thecourseevolvedintoa“greatbooks”program—acorecurriculuminwhichstudentsreadprescribedworksofhistory,literature,andphilosophyandthengatherforsmall-groupdiscussionsguidedbyfacultymembers.Severalyearslater,twoprofessorsnamedStringfellowBarrandScottBuchananmovedfromChicagotoSt.John’sCollegeinAnnapolistostarttheirowngreat-booksprogram.BarrandBuchananradicallyalteredtheundergraduatecurriculumatthesmallschoolwiththetraditionofsevenliberalartsinmind.Evensciencewastaughtfromagreat-booksperspective,readingclassicaccountsthatwere,inmanyways,outdatedorhadbeensuperseded.Theprogramleftnoroomforelectives.

Bythe1930sand1940s—perhapsbecausetheimmigranttidehadrecededwiththeintroductionofnationalquotasin1921and1924—interestinthecommoncorewaned.Today,about150schoolsintheUnitedStatesoffersomekindofcoreprogrambasedongreatbooks,thoughveryfewrequirethatallundergraduatestakeit,asColumbia,Chicago,andSt.John’sdo.

Whateveritsmerits,theideaofacurriculumbasedonsomesetofgreatbookshasalwaysbeendebated.Ina1952essay,Hutchins,whocouldbeconsideredthefatherofthegreat-booksmovement,madewhathasbecomeafamiliarcaseforit.“UntillatelytheWesthasregardeditasself-evidentthattheroadtoeducationlaythroughgreatbooks,”Hutchinswrote.“Nomanwaseducatedunlesshewasacquaintedwiththemasterpiecesofhistradition.”Timeshavechanged,butpoliticalandsocialchangescannot“invalidatethetraditionormakeitirrelevantformodernmen,”heinsisted.Exceptthat,aswehaveseen,thisaccountisnotentirelytrue.Everyonewhohaseversetupagreat-booksprogrambaseditonthebeliefthat,inthegoodolddays,peopleusedtostudyasetofagreed-uponclassics.Infact,fromthestartofliberaleducation,thereweredisputesoverwhatmen(andwomen)shouldreadandhowmuchorhowlittlefreedomtheyshouldhavetofollowtheircuriosity.MarthaNussbaum,a

philosopherattheUniversityofChicago,arguesthattheSocratictraditionofinquirybyitsnaturerejectedanapproachdependent“oncanonicaltextsthathadmoralauthority.”Shewrites,“Itisanironyofthecontemporary‘culturewars’thattheGreeksarefrequentlybroughtonstageasheroesinthe‘greatbooks’curriculaproposedbymanyconservatives.ForthereisnothingonwhichtheGreekphilosophersweremoreeloquent,andmoreunanimous,thanthelimitationsofsuchcurricula.”

I’vefoundthatmyownviewsonthissubjecthavechangedovertime,frommydaysasanundergraduate,thenasateacheringraduateschool,andnowasaparent.Incollege,Iwasattractedtotheideaofacommoncore—thoughIdidn’tendupstudyingone.AndyetIwishedIhadmoreofagroundinginsomeareas,andfoundmyselfplayingcatch-up.Whenteachingundergraduatesinthe1980s,Iwasstrucknotonlybyhowbrighttheywerebutalsobyhowlittletheyknewabout,say,thebasicoutlinesofAmericanhistory.Theycouldanalyzeeverythingplacedinfrontofthem,butifyouaskedthemtoputsixeventsinchronologicalorder,theywouldgetmanyofthemwrong.Ithoughtitwouldbeworthwhiletorequireexposuretoasetoffactsorbooks—furnitureforthemind—thatwouldgivestudentsafoundationfromwhichtothenroamfreely.Andtheyhadroomtoroam.Remember,mostadvocatesofacoredonotconsideritsufficientforaliberaleducation.TheprogramsatColumbiaandChicagoallowformanyelectives.Proportionally,thecorerepresentsonlyapartoftheoverallcurriculum.

Therearealsosocialbenefitstoacommoncore.Allstudentsareabletoshareanintellectualexperience.Theycandiscussittogether,joininitsdelights,andcommiserateoveritsweaknesses.It’sultimatelyabondingopportunity.“OncetheyhavegonethroughtheCore,”writesDelbanco,referringtoColumbia’sprogramspecifically,“nostudentisacompletestrangertoanyother.”Thatsenseofbeingpartofalargergroupbecomesevenmoreusefullaterinlife,whenoneisexpectedtoworkwithone’speersandcolleaguestowardcommongoalsinaprofessionalsetting.Ascampusesgetmorediverseandstudentsspendtimepursuingmorenarrowlyfocusedstudiesandhighlytargetedextracurricularactivities,somethingneedstodefinethecollectiveeducationalexperience.

Istillsympathizewithargumentsinsupportofacore,butIhavecometoplaceagreatervaluethanIoncedidontheopennessinherentinliberaleducation—theabilityforthemindtorangewidelyandpursueinterestsfreely.Inmyownexperience,thecoursesItooksimplybecauseIfeltIneededtoknow

somesubjectmatteroracquireculturalliteracyhavefadedinmymemory.ThosethatItookoutofgenuinecuriosityorbecauseIwasinspiredbyagreatteacherhaveleftamorelastingandpowerfulimpression.Afterall,onecanalwaysreadabooktogetthebasicinformationaboutaparticulartopic,orsimplyuseGoogle.Thecrucialchallengeistolearnhowtoreadcritically,analyzedata,andformulateideas—andmostofalltoenjoytheintellectualadventureenoughtobeabletodothemeasilyandoften.

Lovingtolearnisagreaterchallengetodaythanitusedtobe.I’vewatchedmychildrengrowupsurroundedbyanamazingcornucopiaofentertainmentavailableinstantlyontheircomputers,tablets,andphones.Perhapssoonthesepleasureswillbehardwiredintotheirbrains.Therichness,variety,andallureoftoday’sgames,televisionshows,andvideosaredazzling.Manyareamazinglycreative,andsomeareintellectuallychallenging—therearesmartvideogamesoutthere.Butallaredesignedtogetchildrenenrapturedand,eventually,addicted.Theall-consumingpowerofmodernentertainmentcanturnsomethingthatdemandsactiveandsustainedengagement,likereadingandwriting,intoachore.

Andyetreading—especially,Iwouldargue,readingbooks—remainsoneofthemostimportantpathstorealknowledge.Therearefewsubstitutestounderstandinganissueindepththanreadingagoodbookaboutit.Thishasbeentrueforcenturies,andithasnotchanged.Andkidsneedtoenjoyreading—notjustseeitasthethingtheirparentsmakethemdobeforetheycanplayvideogamesorwatchatelevisionshow.IfhavingteenagersreadPhilipRoth’sGoodbye,ColumbusratherthanJaneAusten’snovelsmakesthismorelikely,sobeit.Idon’tdecryorcondemnnewformsofentertainmentandtechnology.Theyopenupnewvistasofknowledgeandwaysofthinking.Ourchildrenwillbesmarterandquickerthanusinmanyways.Butagoodeducationsystemmustconfronttherealitiesoftheworldweliveinandeducateinawaythataddressesthem,ratherthanpretendthatthesechallengesdon’texist.

Andthentherearethosestrangecollegecourseson,say,“transgenderedrolesinEast-Africanpoetry”thatinfuriateconservativecriticsofhighereducation.Theyarerighttobedismayedatthebizarreandnarrowcontent,butitcomesaboutforreasonsthatareoftennonpolitical.Someofthemostcontroversialfeaturesofmodernliberaleducationhavecomeintobeingnotoutofintellectualconvictionbutfrombureaucraticconvenience.AsAmerica’sbestcollegesbecametheworld’sbestuniversities,theimperativesofthelatterbegantodominatetheformer.Researchhastrumpedteachinginmostlargeuniversities

—noonegetstenureforteaching.Butasimportant,thecurriculumhasalsobeenwarpedtosatisfyresearch.Professorsfindthatitisdrearyandlaboriousforthemtoteachbasiccoursesthatmightbeinterestingandusefulforstudents.Itismucheasiertoofferseminarsontheircurrentresearchinterests,nomatterhowsmall,obscure,orirrelevantthetopicistoundergraduates.Asknowledgebecomesmorespecialized,thecoursesofferedtostudentsbecomemorearcane.Itisthisimpulsethatproducestheseeminglyabsurdcoursesonefindsinsomecollegestoday,asmuchasthesubversivedesiresofaleft-wingprofessoriat.

Anotherdevelopment,againunrelatedtoanyintellectualtheoryaboutliberaleducation,hasbeentheabandonmentofrigor,largelyinthehumanities.GradeshaverisensteadilyinalmostallAmericancollegesinrecentdecades.Today,43percentofallgradesawardedareintheArange—upfrom15percentin1960.Thisisanoutgrowthofacomplexsetoffactors,oneofwhichisindeedtherisingqualityofstudents.Butothersarebureaucraticandphilosophical,suchasthe1960sassaultonhierarchy.Icanattestfrompersonalexperiencethathandingouthighmarkscanbeconvenientforfacultyinterests.WhenIwasateachingassistantatHarvard,IquicklyrealizedthatgivingBminusesorbelowmeantthatthestudentswouldcometocomplainatlength;askyoutoreconsider,maybegivethemanotherchancetodotheworkover;andevenraisetheissuewiththeiradvisororadean.Itmeantlotsofworkforme.ThemucheasierstrategywastogiveeveryoneaBplusoranAminus,reservingthestraightAforworksofgenuinedistinction.(Itriedtoresistbutwascertainlyguiltyoftakingtheeasywayoutmorethanonce.)Icannotsayiftheincentivesremainthesame,butInoticethattheportionofallgradesthatareAorAminusatHarvardhasrisenfromathird(in1986)toahalf(in2006).AndthemostcommonlyawardedgradeatHarvardtodayisastraightA—notevenanAminus.

Thegreatestshiftinliberaleducationoverthepastcenturyhasbeenthedowngradingofsubjectsinscienceandtechnology.Historically,beginningwithGreekandRomandevelopmentsineducation,scientificexplorationwaspursuedthroughthelensof“naturalphilosophy.”IntheMiddleAges,thesubjectwasseenaspartofanefforttoexplainGod’screationandman’srolewithinit.Butduringtheageofscientificrevolutions,andcomingtoaclimaxinthenineteenthcenturywithCharlesDarwin’stheoryofevolution,thestudyofscienceincreasinglyconflictedwithreligion.Thisledtothedisciplinelosingitscentralpositioninliberaleducation,whichwasstillthengroundedinapiousoutlookthatsoughttounderstandnotonlythemysteryoflifebutalsoitspurpose.As

AnthonyKronmanwrites,ariseinscientificresearchmeant“amaterialuniversewhosestructurecouldnowbedescribedwithastoundingprecisionbutwhichwasitselfdevoidofmeaningandpurpose.Asaresult,thephysicalsciencesceasedtobeconcernedwith,ortohavemuchtocontributeto,thesearchforananswertothequestionofthemeaningoflife.”Sciencewasrelegatedtoscientists—ahugelosstosocietyasawhole.

Bythemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,followingthequantumrevolutioninphysics,laypeoplefounditevenmoredifficulttounderstandscienceandintegrateitintootherfieldsofknowledge.In1959,C.P.Snow,anEnglishphysicistandnovelist,wroteafamousessay,“TheTwoCultures,”inwhichhewarnedthatthepolarizationofknowledgeintotwocampswasproducing“mutualincomprehension...hostilityanddislike.”Heexplains:

AgoodmanytimesIhavebeenpresentatgatheringsofpeoplewho,bythestandardsofthetraditionalculture,arethoughthighlyeducatedandwhohavewithconsiderablegustobeenexpressingtheirincredulityattheilliteracyofscientists.OnceortwiceIhavebeenprovokedandhaveaskedthecompanyhowmanyofthemcoulddescribetheSecondLawofThermodynamics.Theresponsewascold:itwasalsonegative.YetIwasaskingsomethingwhichisaboutthescientificequivalentof:HaveyoureadaworkofShakespeare’s?InowbelievethatifIhadaskedanevensimplerquestion—suchas,Whatdoyoumeanbymass,oracceleration,whichisthescientificequivalentofsaying,Canyouread?—notmorethanoneintenofthehighlyeducatedwouldhavefeltthatIwasspeakingthesamelanguage.Sothegreatedificeofmodernphysicsgoesup,andthemajorityofthecleverestpeopleinthewesternworldhaveaboutasmuchinsightintoitastheirneolithicancestorswouldhavehad.

In2003,LawrenceSummers,thenpresidentofHarvard,echoedSnow’sconcernsandadvocatedareturntoscientificliteracyforallattheundergraduatelevel.FormerPrincetonpresidentShirleyTilghman,herselfascientist,arguedin2010thatdiscussionsofpublicpolicyareimpoverishedbecauseofthebasicignoranceofsciencethatpervadesAmericansocietytoday.Nonscientistsneedtounderstandscience,shecontends,andscientistsarebestoffwithastrongbackgroundinothersubjectsaswell.Andyetlittlehaschangedonthisfrontinrecentyears.

Themostinterestingandambitiousefforttoreformliberaleducationforthetwenty-firstcenturyisnottakingplaceinAmerica.Infact,itistakingplaceaboutasfarawayfromtheUnitedStatesasonecanpossiblyget—Singapore.In2011,YaleUniversityjoinedwiththeNationalUniversityofSingaporetoestablishanewliberalartsschoolinAsiacalledYale-NUSCollege,andinthefallof2013,itwelcomeditsfirstclassof157studentsfromtwenty-sixcountries.WhenIwasatrusteeatYale,Ienthusiasticallysupportedthisventure.Theproject—thoughnotwithoutrisks—hasthepotentialtocreateabeachhead

forbroad-basedliberaleducationinapartoftheworldthat,whilerisingtothecenterstageglobally,remainsrelentlesslyfocusedonskills-basedinstruction.

Scholarsfrombothuniversitieshaveusedtheventureasanopportunitytoreexaminetheconceptofliberaleducationinanincreasinglyconnectedandglobalizedworld.ThecurriculumofYale-NUSreflectsthatthinking,insomepartsdrawingonthebestoftheoldtradition,insomepartsrefiningit,andinsomepartscreatingawholenewsetofideasaboutteachingtheyoung.InApril2013,acommitteeofthisnewenterprisesetforththeideasthatwilldefinethecollege.Itisanextraordinarydocumentand,ifimplementedwell,couldserveasamodelfortheliberalartscollegeofthefuture.

TheYale-NUSreportisradicalandinnovative.First,theschoolcallsitselfacollegeofliberalartsandsciences,torestoresciencetoitsfundamentalplaceinanundergraduate’seducation.Itabolishesdepartments,seeingthemassilosthatinhibitcross-fertilization,interdisciplinaryworks,andsynergy.Itembracesacorecurriculum,whichtakesupmostofthefirsttwoyearsofstudybutisverydifferentfromtheColumbia-Chicagomodel.ThefocusoftheYale-NUScoreistoexposestudentstoavarietyofmodesofthinking.Inonemoduletheyaretolearnhowexperimentalscientistsconductresearch;inanother,howstatisticsinformssocialscienceandpublicpolicy.Thereisastrongemphasisthroughoutonexposingstudentstoscientificmethodsratherthanscientificfactssothat—whatevertheirultimatemajor—theyareawareofthewayinwhichscienceworks.

TheYale-NUScoredoesincludecoursesonthegreatbooks,butitdoesnottreatthemassimplyacanontobecheckedoffonaculturalliteracylist.Thebooksselectedareviewedasinterestingexamplesofagenre,chosennotbecausetheyarepartofa“required”bodyofknowledgebutbecausetheybenefitfromcarefulanalysis.Theemphasisagainisonthemethodofinquiry.Studentslearnhowtoread,unpack,andthenwriteaboutagreatworkofliteratureorphilosophyorart.Thecurriculumrequiresstudentstotakeonprojectsoutsidetheclassroom,inthebeliefthata“work”componentteachesvaluablelessonsthatlearningfromabookcannot.Thisparthasapowerfulpracticalappeal.IonceaskedJeffBewkes,theCEOofTimeWarner,whatskillwasmostusefulinbusinessthatwasn’ttaughtincollegeorgraduateschools.Heimmediatelyreplied,“Teamwork.Youhavetoknowhowtoworkwithpeopleandgetotherstowanttoworkwithyou.It’sprobablythecrucialskill,andyeteducationismostlyaboutsoloperformances.”

ThegreatestinnovationintheYale-NUScurriculumcomesdirectlyfromthe

natureoftheassociationbetweenthetwouniversitiesandtheirhomecultures.StudentsstudynotonlyPlatoandAristotlebutalso,inthesamecourse,ConfuciusandtheBuddha—andaskwhytheirsystemsofethicsmightbesimilarordifferent.TheystudytheOdysseyandtheRamayana.Theyexaminethe“primitivisms”ofPaulGauguinandPabloPicassowhilealsolookingatthewoodcarvingsfromtheSouthSeaIslandsandtheukiyo-etraditionofJapanesewoodblockprintsthatinfluencedWesternartists.And,ofcourse,astheystudymodernhistory,politics,andeconomics,theywillnaturallyfindthemselvestakingamorecomparativeapproachtothetopicsthananycollegeintheUnitedStatesorAsiawouldlikelydobyitself.Multiculturalismineducationisusuallyaclichéthatindicateslittleofsubstance,orinvolvesWesterncritiquesoftheWest(likethoseofthewriterFrantzFanonorthehistorianHowardZinn).TheYale-NUScurriculumisbuilttoprovideagenuinemulticulturaleducationinacollegedesignedfortheemergingmulticulturalworld.Instudyingothersocieties,studentslearnmuchmoreabouttheirown.ItisonlybyhavingsomepointofcomparisonthatonecanunderstandthedistinctivequalitiesofWesternorChineseorIndianculture.

Yale-NUSisinitsveryearlydays.Itmaynotbeabletoimplementallitsideas.Itdoesnotsolvealltheproblemsofaliberaleducation.Thetensionsbetweenfreedomofinquiryandthestill-closedpoliticalsysteminSingaporemightunderminetheproject.Buttheeducatorsinvolvedhaveconceivedofthecollege’smissionandmandatebrilliantly,andhavepointedthewaytoarevived,rigorousliberaleducationthatrecoverstheimportanceofscience,placesteachingatitsheart,combinesacorewithopenexploration,andreflectsthedirectiontheworldisheaded,inwhichknowledgeofnewcountriesandculturesisanessentialcomponentofanyeducation.Yale-NUSshouldbecomeamodelstudiedaroundtheworld.

Butwhatifaliberaleducationdonewellstilldoesn’tgetyouajob?In1852,CardinalNewmanwrotethatastudentofliberaleducation“apprehendsthegreatoutlinesofknowledge”foritsownsakeratherthantoacquireskillstopracticeatradeordoajob.Eventhen,henoted,therewereskepticswhoraisedquestionsofpracticality.Aswehaveseen,suchquestionshavesurroundedtheideaofliberaleducationsincethedaysofIsocrates,andtheypersisttoday.Newmantellsusthathiscriticswouldaskhim,“Towhatthendoesitlead?wheredoesitend?whatdoesitdo?Howdoesitprofit?”OrasaformerpresidentofYale,thelateA.BartlettGiamatti,putitinoneofhisbeautifullectures,“Whatistheearthlyuseofallthiskindofeducation?”

So,whatistheearthlyuseofaliberaleducation?

*BruceKimball,OratorsandPhilosophers:AHistoryoftheIdeaofLiberalEducation(NewYork:TeachersCollegePress,1986),isespeciallyenlighteningonancientandearlyeducation,andIdrawonit,amongothersources,fortheparagraphsdealingwiththatperiod.†IdrawonDelbanco’sexcellentbookCollege:WhatItWas,Is,andShouldBe(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2012),amongothers,fortheearlyyearsofAmericanhighereducation.

3

LearningtoThink

WHENYOUHEARsomeoneextolthebenefitsofaliberaleducation,youwillprobablyhearhimorhersaythat“itteachesyouhowtothink.”I’msurethat’strue.Butforme,thecentralvirtueofaliberaleducationisthatitteachesyouhowtowrite,andwritingmakesyouthink.Whateveryoudoinlife,theabilitytowriteclearly,cleanly,andreasonablyquicklywillprovetobeaninvaluableskill.

Inmyfreshmanyearofcollege,ItookanEnglishcompositioncourse.Myteacher,anelderlyEnglishmanwithasharpwitandanevensharperredpencil,wasatoughgrader.Hewouldreturnmyessayswithdozensofcommentswritteninthemargins,eachonehighlightingsomethingthatwasvagueorconfusingorpoorlyarticulated.IrealizedthatincomingfromIndia,IwasprettygoodattakingtestsandregurgitatingthingsIhadmemorized;Iwasnotsogoodatexpressingmyownideas.BythetimeIgottocollege,Ihadtakenmany,manyexamsbutwrittenalmostnopapers.ThatwasnotunusualevenatagoodhighschoolinAsiainthe1970s,andit’sstilltrueinmanyplacestheretoday.

Overthecourseofthatsemester,Ifoundmyselfstartingtomaketheconnectionbetweenmythoughtsandwords.Itwashard.Beingforcedtowriteclearlymeans,first,youhavetothinkclearly.Ibegantorecognizethatthetwoprocessesareinextricablyintertwined.Inwhatisprobablyanapocryphalstory,whenthecolumnistWalterLippmannwasonceaskedhisviewsonaparticulartopic,heissaidtohavereplied,“Idon’tknowwhatIthinkonthatone.Ihaven’twrittenaboutityet.”

Inmodernphilosophy,thereisagreatdebateastowhichcomesfirst—thoughtorlanguage.Dowethinkabstractlyandthenputthoseideasintowords,

ordowethinkinwordsthatthencreateascaffoldingofthought?Icanspeakonlyfrommyownexperience.WhenIbegintowrite,Irealizethatmy“thoughts”areusuallyajumbleofhalf-formedideasstrungtogether,withgapingholesbetweenthem.Itistheactofwritingthatforcesmetosortthemout.Writingthefirstdraftofacolumnoranessayisanexpressionofself-knowledge—learningjustwhatIthinkaboutatopic,whetherthereisalogicalsequencetomyideas,andwhethertheconclusionflowsfromthefactsathand.Nomatterwhoyouare—apolitician,abusinessperson,alawyer,ahistorian,oranovelist—writingforcesyoutomakechoicesandbringsclarityandordertoyourideas.

Ifyouthinkthishasnoearthlyuse,askJeffBezos,thefounderofAmazon.Bezosinsiststhathisseniorexecutiveswritememos,oftenaslongassixprintedpages,andbeginssenior-managementmeetingswithaperiodofquiettime,sometimesaslongasthirtyminutes,whileeveryonereadsthe“narratives”tothemselvesandmakesnotesonthem.Ifproposinganewproductorstrategy,thememomusttaketheformofapressrelease,usingsimple,jargon-freelanguagesothatalaypersoncanunderstandit.InaninterviewwithFortune’sAdamLashinsky,Bezossaid,“Fullsentencesarehardertowrite.Theyhaveverbs.Theparagraphshavetopicsentences.Thereisnowaytowriteasix-page,narrativelystructuredmemoandnothaveclearthinking.”

NormanAugustine,reflectingonhisyearsastheCEOofLockheedMartin,recalledthat“thefirmIledattheendofmyformalbusinesscareeremployedsomeonehundredeightythousandpeople,mostlycollegegraduates,ofwhomovereightythousandwereengineersorscientists.Ihaveconcludedthatoneofthestrongercorrelationswithadvancementthroughthemanagementrankswastheabilityofanindividualtoexpressclearlyhisorherthoughtsinwriting.”

Thesecondgreatadvantageofaliberaleducationisthatitteachesyouhowtospeak.TheYale-NUSreportstatesthatthecollegewantstomake“articulatecommunication”centraltoitsintellectualexperience.Thatinvolveswriting,ofcourse,butalsotheabilitytogivecompellingverbalexplanationsof,say,scientificexperimentsortodeliverpresentationsbeforesmallandlargegroups.Atthedeepestlevel,articulatecommunicationhelpsyoutospeakyourmind.Thisdoesn’tmeanspoutinganythingandeverythingyou’rethinkingatanygivenmoment.Itmeanslearningtounderstandyourownmind,tofilteroutunder-developedideas,andthentoexpresstotheoutsideworldyourthoughts,arrangedinsomelogicalorder.

AnotherdifferencethatstruckmebetweenschoolinIndiaandcollegeinthe

UnitedStateswasthattalkingwasanimportantcomponentofmygrade.Myprofessorsweregoingtojudgemeonmyabilitytothinkthroughthesubjectmatterandtopresentmyanalysisandconclusions—outloud.Theseminar,aformofteachingandlearningattheheartofliberaleducation,helpsyoutoread,analyze,anddissect.Aboveall,ithelpsyoutoexpressyourself.Andthisemphasison“articulatecommunication”isreinforcedinthemanyextracurricularactivitiesthatsurroundeveryliberalartscollege—theater,debate,politicalunions,studentgovernment,protestgroups.Inordertobesuccessfulinlife,youoftenhavetogainyourpeers’attentionandconvincethemofyourcause,sometimesinafive-minuteelevatorpitch.

Thestudyandpracticeofspeechactuallyfiguredfarmoreprominentlyintheearlycenturiesofliberaleducation.Rhetoricwasamongthemostimportantsubjectstaught—oftenthemostimportant.Itwasintimatelyconnectednotonlywithphilosophybutalsowithgovernanceandaction.Inthecenturiesbeforeprint,oralcommunicationwasatthecenterofpublicandprofessionallife.Theeighteenth-andnineteenth-centurycollegecurriculainBritainandtheUnitedStatesmaintainedthatemphasisonoratory.

Inthetwentiethcentury,asresearchbecamethemajorfocusoflargeuniversities,andtheprintedtextbecamethedominantmethodofmasscommunication,theemphasisonspeechfaded,especiallyintheUnitedStates.InGreatBritain,publicspeakingremainsprominentinatraditionofpoetryrecitationandelocution,debateanddeclamation.AtthecenterofBritain’spoliticallifestandstheHouseofCommons,avenueinwhichtheabilitytothrustandparryverballygainsapoliticiannoticebyhisorherpeers.That’swhysomanyBritonssoundintelligent,lucid,andwitty—it’snotjusttheaccent.Theriseoftelevisionanddigitalvideohavemadeverbalfluencyuseful,sometimescrucial.Whetherforpublicorprivatecommunication,theabilitytoarticulateyourthoughtsclearlywillprovetobeatremendousstrength.Nomatterhowstrongyouridea,youhavetobeabletoconvinceotherstogetbehindit.

Arelatedmethodoflearningthroughtheageshasbeensomethingthatisoftenthoughtofaspurepleasure—conversation.“Conversation,”aformerpresidentofYale,A.WhitneyGriswold,wrote,“istheoldestformofinstructionofthehumanrace,”definingitas“thegreatcreativeartwherebymantranslatesfeelingintoreasonandshareswithhisfellowmanthoseinnermostthoughtsandidealsofwhichcivilizationismade.”ThescientistandphilosopherAlfredNorthWhiteheadonceconfessedthat“outsideofthebook-knowledgewhichisnecessarytoourprofessionaltraining,IthinkIgotmostofmydevelopment

fromthegoodconversationtowhichIhavealwayshadthelucktohaveaccess.”Thisisprobablytheinsightbehindthe“open-planoffice”thatencouragesmeetings,chats,andconversationthroughouttheworkday.Formypart,Ihavefoundthatinterviewingpeople,exchangingviewswithpeersandfriends,andarguingateditorialmeetingshavebeencrucialtolearning.

Thatbringsmetothethirdgreatstrengthofaliberaleducation:itteachesyouhowtolearn.InowrealizethatwhatIgainedfromcollegeandgraduateschool,farmorelastingthananyspecificsetoffactsorpieceofknowledge,hasbeentheunderstandingofhowtoacquireknowledgeonmyown.Ilearnedhowtoreadanessayclosely,searchfornewsources,finddatatoproveordisproveahypothesis,anddetectanauthor’sprejudices.Ilearnedhowtoreadabookfastandstillgetitsessence.Ilearnedtoaskquestions,presentanopposingview,takenotes,and,nowadays,watchspeeches,lectures,andinterviewsastheystreamacrossmycomputer.Andmostofall,Ilearnedthatlearningwasapleasure—agreatadventureofexploration.

Whateverjobyoutake,thespecificsubjectsyoustudiedincollegewillprobablyprovesomewhatirrelevanttotheday-to-dayworkyouwilldosoonafteryougraduate.Andeveniftheyarerelevant,thatwillchange.Peoplewholearnedtowritecodeforcomputersjusttenyearsagonowconfrontanewworldofappsandmobiledevices.Whatremainconstantaretheskillsyouacquireandthemethodsyoulearntoapproachproblems.Givenhowquicklyindustriesandprofessionsareevolvingthesedays,youwillneedtoapplytheseskillstonewchallengesallthetime.Learningandre-learning,toolingandretoolingareattheheartofthemoderneconomy.DrewFaust,presidentofHarvardUniversity,haspointedoutthataliberaleducationshouldgivepeopletheskills“thatwillhelpthemgetreadyfortheirsixthjob,nottheirfirstjob.”

Youmightalsoneedtoexperimentwithvarietiesofintelligence,notjustone.HowardGardner,adevelopmentalpsychologistandexpertoneducation,haspositedthatthereareatleasteightkindsofintelligence:linguistic,logical-mathematical,spatial,musical,bodily-kinesthetic,naturalistic,intrapersonal,andinterpersonal.Tobeproperlypreparedfortoday’sworld,studentsmustexperienceseveralmethodsoflearningconducivetothesevariousintelligences.America’slooseandopensystemofhighereducationallowsforthiskindofexperimentation.ThisiswhatpromptedGardnertowrite,“ThereisajokeinmytradethatoneshouldgotoinfantschoolinFrance,preschoolinItaly,primaryschoolinJapan,secondaryschoolinGermany,andcollegeoruniversityintheUnitedStates.”

ThomasCech—NobelPrize–winningchemistandgraduateofGrinnellCollege,aclassicliberalartsschool—makesasportsanalogytoillustrateasimilarinsight.Justasathletesdoexercisesunrelatedtotheirownsport,sostudentsshouldstudyfieldsoutsidetheiracademicareaoffocus.“Cross-trainingmayexercisekeymusclegroupsmoreeffectivelythanspendingthesameamountoftimeworkingoutinthesportofinterest,”Cechwrites.“Analogously,aliberalartseducationencouragesscientiststoimprovetheir‘competitiveedge’bycross-traininginthehumanitiesorarts.Suchacademiccross-trainingdevelopsastudent’sabilitytocollectandorganizefactsandopinions,toanalyzethemandweightheirvalue,andtoarticulateanargument,anditmaydeveloptheseskillsmoreeffectivelythanwritingyetanotherlabreport.”

Gardnerarguesthatinthefuture,studentswillfocusevenmoreonmodesofthinking.Afterall,withfactsbeingjustaGooglesearchaway,whywastebraincellsmemorizingthem?Henotesthatthebestthinkingoftenhappenswhenideas,fields,anddisciplinescollide,inasettingwhereculturesrubupagainstoneanother.Inthesamevein,herejectsagreat-booksapproachtolearning—moresothanIwould.Thepointofeducation,inhisview,isnottostockstudents’mindswithantiquefurniture,buttohelpthemgaintheintellectualskillstheyrequiretobuildtheirownsetofchairsandtables.Hewouldfavoracurriculumthatexposesstudentstodifferentwaysofthinking—observational,analytic,aesthetic,teamworkoriented,andsoon(whichsoundsalotliketheYale-NUSprogram).Suchacurriculumisnowknowntoproduceresults.Drawingonhisknowledgeofpsychologyandneuroscience,Gardnerassertsthat“itbordersonmalpracticetodesigneducationthatisbackward-lookingandthatignoreswhatwenowunderstandabouthowthemindconstructsandreconstructsknowledge.”

Technologyandengineeringinvolveextraordinaryexplorationsofideasandthought,somethingthatisoftenlostbecauseoftheirreal-worldapplication.Theyarescientificallyfascinating,whetherornottheywillmakeyourich.IrememberbeingamazedbythefirstcomputersIsawinIndiainthe1970s,butIdidn’thaveanysensethattheywouldproducelucrativenewindustries.Inthosedays,thecomputerprogrammingIlearnedinvolvedusingpunchcardsandmasteringFORTRAN,alanguagelong-sincedead.Eveninthatcumbersomeformat,themachine’sincrediblepowerwasevident.Itwasalsofuntolearnsomethingsonew.Computershavetransformedtheworldinwaysthatarenowblindinglyobvious.Butwithallthemoneysurroundingthem,wecaneasilyforgettheintellectualpleasuretheycangive.Bigdata,artificialintelligence,and

mobilecomputingallmightproducegreatnewcompanies,buttheyalsotakeusintoareasofknowledgewherewehaveneverbeenbefore.Andwhetherornotthatmakessomeoneabillionaire,itisathrillingintellectualjourneythatasksprofoundquestionsaboutthenatureofthemind—areturninsomewaystotheideaofscienceasabranchofphilosophy.

Eventechnicalskillsbythemselvesareawonderfulmanifestationofhumaningenuity.Buttheydon’thavetobepraisedattheexpenseofhumanities,astheyoftenaretoday.Engineeringisnotbetterthanarthistory.Societyneedsboth,oftenincombination.WhenunveilinganeweditionoftheiPad,SteveJobsexplainedthat“itisinApple’sDNAthattechnologyaloneisnotenough.It’stechnologymarriedwithliberalarts,marriedwiththehumanities,thatyieldsustheresultthatmakesourheartssing.”

Thatmarriageisnotsimplyamatterofaddingdesigntotechnology.ConsiderthecaseofFacebook.MarkZuckerbergwasaclassicliberalartsstudentwhoalsohappenedtobepassionatelyinterestedincomputers.HestudiedancientGreekintensivelyinhighschoolandwasapsychologymajorwhenheattendedcollege.ThecrucialinsightsthatmadeFacebookthegiantitistodayhaveasmuchtodowithpsychologyastheydotechnology.Ininterviewsandtalks,ZuckerberghasoftenpointedoutthatbeforeFacebookwascreated,mostpeopleshieldedtheiridentitiesontheInternet.TheInternetwasalandofanonymity.Facebook’sinsightwasthatyoucouldcreateacultureofrealidentities,wherepeoplewouldvoluntarilyexposethemselvestotheirfriends,andthiswouldbecomeatransformativeplatform.Ofcourse,Zuckerbergunderstandscomputersdeeplyandnowusesgreatcoderstoputhisideasintopractice,buthisunderstandingofhumanpsychologywaskeytohissuccess.Inhisownwords,Facebookis“asmuchpsychologyandsociologyasitistechnology.”

Technologyandliberaleducationgohandinhandinbusinesstoday.Twentyyearsago,techcompaniesmighthavesurvivedsimplyasindustrialproductmanufacturers.Nowtheyhavetobeatthecuttingedgeofdesign,marketing,andsocialnetworking.Manyothercompaniesalsodirectmuchoftheirattentiontowardthesefields,sincemanufacturingisincreasinglycommoditized.Youcanmakeasneakerequallywellinmanypartsoftheworld.Butyoucan’tsellitforthreehundreddollarsunlessyouhavebuiltastoryaroundit.Thesameistrueforcars,clothes,andcoffee.Thevalueaddedisinthebrand—howitisimagined,presented,sold,andsustained.BruceNussbaum,anexpertoninnovation,wroteina2005essayinBusinessweekthatthe“KnowledgeEconomyasweknowitis

beingeclipsedbysomethingnew—callittheCreativityEconomy....Whatwasoncecentraltocorporations—price,quality,andmuchoftheleft-brain,digitizedanalyticalworkassociatedwithknowledge—isfastbeingshippedofftolower-paid,highlytrainedChineseandIndians,aswellasHungarians,Czechs,andRussians.Increasingly,thenewcorecompetenceiscreativity—theright-brainstuffthatsmartcompaniesarenowharnessingtogeneratetop-linegrowth....Itisn’tjustaboutmathandscienceanymore.It’saboutcreativity,imagination,and,aboveall,innovation.”

DavidAutor,theMITeconomistwhohasmostcarefullystudiedtheimpactoftechnologyandglobalizationonjobs,writesthat“humantasksthathaveprovedmostamenabletocomputerizationarethosethatfollowexplicit,codifiableprocedures—suchasmultiplication—wherecomputersnowvastlyexceedhumanlaborinspeed,quality,accuracy,andcostefficiency.Tasksthathaveprovedmostvexingtoautomatearethosethatdemandflexibility,judgment,andcommonsense—skillsthatweunderstandonlytacitly—forexample,developingahypothesisororganizingacloset.Inthesetasks,computersareoftenlesssophisticatedthanpreschoolagechildren.”Thisdoesn’tinanywaydetractfromtheneedfortrainingintechnology,butitdoessuggestthatasweworkwithcomputers—whichisreallythefutureofallwork—themostvaluableskillswillbetheonesthatareuniquelyhuman,thatcomputerscannotquitefigureout—yet.

Autordividesthejobmarketintothreeslices.AFastCompanyarticlenicelysummarizeshisresearch.“Atthebottomofthemarket,there’sagrowingnumberofservicesectorjobsthatrequirehands-oninteractioninunpredictableenvironments—drivingabus,cookingfood,caringforchildrenortheelderly.Theseareimpossibletooutsourceorreplacewithtechnology,”itnotes.Themiddletierismadeupofjobsthatarewhitecollarbutarealsoroutine.Theyinvolveinformationprocessing,formfiling,factfinding,dataentry,andsimpledataanalysis.Thesearewhite-collarjobsininsurance,banking,andlaw,andtheyareincreasinglybeingdonebetterbymachines.“Atthetopofthemarketarethejobsthateveryonewants.Andguesswhat?”thearticlesays,perhapsmoreoptimisticallythanAutorhimselfmight,“ThesearethejobsthatgraduatesoftheAmericaneducationalsystemarewellpreparedfor.[They]requirecreativity,problemsolving,decisionmaking,persuasivearguing,andmanagementskills.”VinodKhosla,aSiliconValleyventurecapitalist,arguesthatmachinelearningwillreplacemanyhumanjobs,butevenhebelievesthatworkinvolvingcomplexcreativity,emotionalintelligence,andvaluejudgments

willcontinuetobedonebyhumans.AndthenthereisthemostinfluentialindustryintheUnitedStates—

entertainment,oneofthegreatestglobalgrowthsectors.A2012industryreporttitledTheSkyIsRisingpresenteddatashowingthatallbusinessrelatedtoentertainmenthadmaintainedanupwardtrajectory,throughrecessionsandrecoveries.Between1995and2009,thenumberoffeaturefilmsmadeworldwidemorethanquadrupled.Between2008and2011,thenumberofAmericansplayingvideogamesjumpedabouttwoandahalftimes.Eveninbookpublishing,revenuesrose5.6percentbetweentherecessionyearsof2008and2010.Musicandtelevisionaswell—everythinginthesectorisup.Thisisanindustrythatemploysmillionsaroundtheworld,continuestogrow,andenricheseconomiesandcultures.Andatitsheartarestories,images,words,andsongs.Oftentheseartisticelementsarefurtherembellishedbytechnology—asinthefilmsTheLordoftheRingsandFrozen.Regardlessofhowthesefilmsaremade,itisclearthatmuchoftheproductionofentertainmentrequiresabackgroundandexpertiseinoneofseveraloftheliberalarts.

Sothereisavaluetowritingandmusicanddesignandart.Butwhataboutarthistory?WhatisthebestresponsetoPresidentObamaandsomanyotherswhoworryaboutthepurposeofanacademicdegreeinsubjectsasseeminglyobscureasarthistoryandanthropology?Tobefairtothepresident,hisemphasiswasonthemanymillionsofAmericanswhoaremoreinclinedtoobtainsomekindofskills-basedtrainingthanaliberaleducation.Perhapsthosepeoplewouldbebetterofflearningaspecifictechnicalskillratherthanenrollinginapreprofessional-soundingmajorlike“business.”Butforthosewhodofindthattheirpassionisarthistoryoranthropology,andtakeitseriously,therearerealrewardsintheoutsideworld.Boththosefieldsoftenrequiretheintensivestudyofseverallanguagesandcultures,experienceworkinginforeigncountries,aneyeforaesthetics,andtheabilitytotranslatefromonemediumorculturetoanother.Mostoftheseskillscouldbeusefulinanynumberofprofessionsintoday’sglobalizedage.Theyforceyoutolookatpeopleandobjectsfromavarietyofperspectives.AsHowardGardner’sresearchdemonstrates,thiskindofexposuretrainsvariouskindsofintelligence,makingyouamorecreativeandawareperson.

ConsidertheexperienceofDr.IrwinBravermanoftheYaleMedicalSchool.In1998,whenhewasteachingyoungmedicalstudentswhowereresidentsatanaffiliatedhospital,Dr.Bravermandiscoveredthattheirpowersofobservationanddiagnosiswereweak.Hisnovelsolutionwastotakethemtoanartgallery.

HeteamedupwithLindaFriedlander,curatoroftheYaleCenterforBritishArt,todesignavisualtutorialforonehundredstudents.Theyaskedthestudentstoexaminepaintings,forcingthemtounpackthemanylayersofdetailandmeaninginagoodworkofart.Bravermanfoundthatstudentsperformeddemonstrablybetteratdiagnosisaftertakingtheclass—somuchsothattwentyothermedicalschoolshavefollowedhisexample.

Whilethismaysoundlikethequixoticideaofoneprofessor,therearedatatosupportthevalueofroundedorlateralthinkingintheworkforce.In2013,theAmericanAssociationofCollegesandUniversitiespublishedasurveyshowingthat74percentofemployerswouldrecommendagoodliberaleducationtostudentsasthebestwaytopreparefortoday’sglobaleconomy.Whenstudentsgraduate,thosewithengineeringdegreesstartoutwithhighersalaries—astheyshould,giventhattheypossessatangibleskill-setthatcanbeinstantlyappliedwithinacompany.Butovertime,thewagegapbetweenengineersandotherprofessionalsnarrows,especiallyforliberalartsstudentswhogoontogetaprofessionaldegree.Infact,onerecentstudyfoundthatstudentsfromasetofliberalartscollegesweremorelikelythantheirpeersatotherinstitutionsofhighereducationtoobtaindoctoratesinsciences,presumablybecausetheypossessanacutecuriosityandsenseofacademicadventure.AsInoted,aliberaleducationmightencouragestudentinterestinscientificsubjectsfortheirinherentintellectualvalue,ratherthantheirvalueinthemarketplace.Andthatmighthaveitsownpayoffsovertimeintermsofbasicresearchandscientificadvancement.

NormanAugustine(theformerLockheedMartinCEO)stressedtheimportanceofbothscientificskillsandhumanisticthought:

Sowhatdoesbusinessneedfromoureducationalsystem?Oneansweristhatitneedsmoreemployeeswhoexcelinscienceandengineering....Butthatisonlythebeginning;onecannotlivebyequationsalone.Theneedisincreasingforworkerswithgreaterforeign-languageskillsandanexpandedknowledgeofeconomics,history,andgeography.Andwhowantsatechnology-driveneconomyifthosewhodriveitarenotgroundedinsuchfieldsasethics?...

Certainlywhenitcomestolife’smajordecisions,woulditnotbewellfortheleadersandemployeesofourgovernmentandournation’sfirmstohaveknowledgeofthethoughtsoftheworld’sgreatphilosophersandtheprovocativedilemmasfoundintheworksofgreatauthorsandplaywrights?Ibelievetheanswerisaresounding“yes.”

Similarly,EdgarBronfman,formerCEOofSeagramCompany,hasofferedstudentslookingtosucceedinbusinessonepieceofadvice:

Getaliberalartsdegree.Inmyexperience,aliberalartsdegreeisthemostimportantfactorinformingindividualsintointerestingandinterestedpeoplewhocandeterminetheirownpathsthroughthefuture.

Forallofthedecisionsyoungbusinessleaderswillbeaskedtomakebasedonfactsandfigures,needsandwants,numbersandspeculation,allofthosechoiceswillrequireonecommonskill:howtoevaluaterawinformation,beitfrompeopleoraspreadsheet,andmakereasonedandcriticaldecisions.

YetasamplingoftheviewsofCEOsremainsjustanecdotalevidence.Whatdoesthebigpicturetellus,inthevastarenaofglobaleconomiccompetition?CanliberaleducationstandupagainsttheinstructioninscienceandtechnologythathasbeensofinelytunedbyAsiannations?

In2013,theOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopmentreleasedtheresultsofthefirst-eversurveyoftheskillsadultsrequiretoworkinthemoderneconomy.Threeareaswereconsidered:literacy,numeracy,andtechnology.TheUnitedStatesperformedterribly,scoringbelowtheOECDaverageinliteracyandtechnologicalproficiency,andthirdfromthebottominnumeracy.Thetestwasdesignedtoassessproblem-solvingskills,notrotememorization.Thetechnologytest,forinstance,askedpeopletosortcomputerfilesintofolders.Mosttroublingisthatinnumeracyandtechnologicalproficiency,youngAmericans,agessixteentotwenty-four,rankedlast.

Thisisconsistentwiththeintellectualability(orlackthereof)thatAmericansdemonstrateearlierintheirlives.Everythreeyearssince2000,theOECDhasadministeredastandardizedtestinscience,mathematics,andreadingtofifteen-year-olds.Themostrecenteditionofthetest—calledtheProgrammeforInternationalStudentAssessment(PISA)—wasconductedin2012,anditfoundthatamongtheOECD’sthirty-fourmembers,theUnitedStatesrankedtwenty-seventh,twentieth,andseventeenthinmath,science,andreading,respectively.Ifrankingsacrossthethreesubjectsareaveraged,theUnitedStatescomesintwenty-first,trailingnationsliketheCzechRepublic,Poland,Slovenia,andEstonia.

Butthereisapuzzle.TheUnitedStateshasneverperformedespeciallywelloninternationaltests.In1964,theFirstInternationalMathematicsStudywasadministeredtothirteen-year-oldsintwelvecountries.Onaverage,thirteen-year-oldsintheUnitedStatespostedasignificantlylowerscorethantheircounterpartsinnineofthecountries.Onlyoneeducationsystemdidworse.Inthe1970sand1980s,studiesonmathematicandscientificabilitycontinuedtofindAmericanstudentslaggingtheirinternationalpeers.Thoughnotalwaysatthebottomoftherankings,theUnitedStateshasrarelyrisenfarabovethemiddleofthepack.Themostrecentassessmentintheseries,calledtheTrendsinInternationalMathematicsandScienceStudy,wasconductedin2011,andAmericanstudentsdidmuchbetter.Offiftyeducationsystemstested,theUnited

Statesrankedeleventhandseventhinfourth-grademathandscience,respectively.Offorty-twoeducationsystemsevaluated,theUnitedStatesrankedninthandtenthineighth-grademathandscience.TheseTIMSStests,however,arelessaboutconceptualproblemsolvingandmoreaboutrepeatingmaterialthathasbeenstudied.

Overall,America’stestscoresaredisappointing,particularlygiventheUnitedStatesspendsmorepercapitathanalmostanyothercountryoneducation.Buthowthendoesoneexplainthecountry’ssuccessoverthelastfivedecades?AndhowdoesoneunderstandwhystudentsinAsiancountriesthattypicallytoptheinternationaltestchartsdon’tendupproducingtheworld’smostcreativescientists,entrepreneurs,inventors,composers,andbusinesspeople?Thesehigh-scoringAsiancountriesdowelleconomically,ofcourse,buttheydon’tdoespeciallywellatinnovation—sofar.

Manyyearsago,IhadaconversationaboutallthiswithSingapore’sministerofeducationatthetime,TharmanShanmugaratnam.Singaporeistherightcountrytolookatbecauseitsitsamongthetop-performingnationsoninternationaltests.Andyet,itisactivelyseekingtoboostinnovationandentrepreneurshipamongthestudentsproducingthosetopscores.“Webothhavemeritocracies,”Shanmugaratnamsaid.“Yoursisatalentmeritocracy,oursisanexammeritocracy.Therearesomepartsoftheintellectthatwearenotabletotestwell—likecreativity,curiosity,asenseofadventure,ambition.Mostofall,Americahasacultureoflearningthatchallengesconventionalwisdom,evenifitmeanschallengingauthority.ThesearetheareaswhereSingaporemustlearnfromAmerica.”

It’snotjustSingaporethatfeelsthisway,whichiswhyitsetuptheYale-NUSliberalartsandsciencescollege.SouthKorea,whichconsistentlyproducestoprankingsoninternationaltests,ismakingamajorinvestmentinliberaleducation.SeoulNationalUniversityandYonseiUniversityhaveexpandedtheirinstructioninsubjectsassociatedwiththeliberalarts.JapanhasdonethesameattheUniversityofTokyo,andin2004,WasedaUniversityopenedaSchoolofInternationalLiberalStudies,thoughtheseeffortshaveyettobearfruitinanysubstantialway.Indiahasalongtraditionofliberalartscollegesanduniversities,manydatingtotheBritisheraandsometotheperiodafterindependence,likeJawaharlalNehruUniversity.Butnoneoftheseinstitutionsareasprestigiousasthecountry’sengineeringschools.Inaddition,allarerunlikethegovernmentbureaucraciesthattheyare.Lookingtoshakeuptheoldsystem,inrecentyears,severalprominentIndianbusinessmenhavesetupnew

higher-learninginstitutionsorientedtowardtheliberalarts,suchasAzimPremjiUniversityandMahindraUnitedWorldCollege.Inaddition,AshokaandNalandaUniversities,bothofwhichwelcomedtheirfirstclassofstudentsin2014,hearkenbacktoIndia’sancientheritageofphilosophy,literature,science,andethicsbutinamodernliberalartsandsciencesform.

Whenconsideringtheworld’smostinnovativecountriestoday,inadditiontotheUnitedStates,inEuropeoneoftenhearsaboutSweden,whichseemstohaveallthenewtechnologycompaniesoutsideSiliconValley.AndthenthereisIsrael,thesubjectofafascinatingbookdetailingitshigh-technologysector,Start-upNationbyDanSenorandSaulSinger.Theevidenceconfirmsthisanecdotalimpression.IsraelactuallyranksfirstintheworldinventurecapitalinvestmentsasapercentageofGDP.TheUnitedStatesrankssecond,andSwedensixth—aheadofGreatBritainandGermany.A2014Bloombergmeasureoftechnologydensity,orthenumberofhigh-techcompaniesasapercentageofallpubliclylistedcompanies,providesasimilarstory.TheUnitedStatesranksfirst,Swedenranksfifth,andIsraeltenth.ResearchanddevelopmentexpendituresasapercentageofGDPmoveIsraelintothetopspot,withSwedeninfourth,andtheUnitedStatesinthetenthplace.

WhatisstrikingaboutallthreecountriesisthatnoneofthemdoparticularlywellinthePISArankings.SwedenandIsraelperformedevenworsethantheUnitedStatesonthe2012assessment.Withtheirthreesubjectrankingsaveraged,theycomeintwenty-eighthandtwenty-ninth,respectively,amongtheOECD’sthirty-fourmembers.Whatdothesecountrieshaveincommon,otherthanbadtestscores,thatcouldexplaintheirreal-worldsuccess?Afewtraitsstandout.Inallthreeplaces,theworkcultureisnon-hierarchicalandmeritbased.Alloperatelike“young”countries,withenergyanddynamism.Allthreeareopensocieties,happytoletintheworld’sideas,goods,andservices.Andfinally,theyareallplaceswherepeopleareconfident—acharacteristicthatcanactuallybemeasured.ThePISAtestsdon’tsimplyevaluatestudents’skills;theyalsoaskthemquestionstodeterminetheirlevelsofconfidence—or“self-concept,”inthejargonused.Studentsareaskedhowgoodtheythinktheyareat,say,mathematics.Despiterankingtwenty-seventhandthirtiethinthesubject,respectively,AmericanandIsraelistudentscomeoutrightatthetopintheirbeliefintheirownabilities.Swedencomesinseventh,eventhoughitsactualmathrankingwastwenty-eighth.

Irememberfirstreadingaboutthisdisparitybetweenachievementandconfidenceintheearly1990s.Atthetime,WilliamBennett,whohadservedas

secretaryofeducationunderPresidentRonaldReagan,describedsimilarresults,quipping,“Thiscountryisalotbetteratteachingself-esteemthanitisatteachingmath.”It’safunnyline,butonreflection,thereisactuallysomethingpowerfulinthepluckyconfidenceofAmerican,Swedish,andIsraelistudents.Itallowsthemtochallengetheirelders,startcompanies,persistwhenothersthinktheyarewrong,andpickthemselvesupwhentheyfail.Thoughconfidenceoverstatedrunstheriskofself-delusion,thetraitisanessentialingredientforentrepreneurship.IntheirbookTheTriplePackage,AmyChuaandJedRubenfeldarguethatthebest-performingminoritygroupspossessastrangecombinationofinsecurityandconfidence.WhenweconsiderAmerica’sendlessconcernsaboutitsdecline,orIsrael’sfearforitsexistence,andthencoupletheseinsecuritieswiththebravadoitspeopledisplay,perhapsweseethesamephenomenonwritlarge.

Therelationshipbetweeneducationaltestscoresandeconomicperformanceisasubjectofgreatcontroversy(andhasbeencaughtupinthedebateabouteducationreform).Someexpertsseenocorrelationatall,whileotherspointtodatasuggestingtheopposite.Myownsenseisthatallthingsbeingequal,itobviouslyhelpstohaveawell-trainedpopulation.America’spublicschoolsystemneedsmanyofthereformsbeingproposedbybothRepublicansandDemocratstomakethismorelikely.SouthKorea,Taiwan,Singapore,andnowChina—withtheirhighratesofgrowthinrecentdecades—arelivingproofofaconnectionbetweenstrongtestscoresandeconomicsuccess.Butgrowthandinnovationaresupportedbymanyfactors,someofwhicharewhollyoutsidetherealmoftestsandskills.

TheUnitedStateshasapoorlytrainedlaborforceingeneral,whichisadisadvantage.Butitmakesupforitinseveralways.Thecountryhasanextremelydynamicandflexibleeconomy,strongruleoflaw,agoodregulatorystructure,extraordinaryresearchuniversities,richventure-capitalfirms,andavibrantentrepreneurialculture.Alltheseingredientsmorethanmakeupformiddlingtestscores.Japan,ontheotherhand,hasasuperblytrainedgeneralpopulation.Butitwouldscorepoorlyonmanybroadereconomicandculturalindicators,especiallywithregardtoentrepreneurshipandthehierarchyofsociety.GoodtestscoresarenotenoughtocreatethenextGoogle.

Americaalsobenefitsbybeingtheworld’smagnetfortheverybestandbrightest.Ittakesinmanyimmigrants,someofwhomarewelleducatedandmotivated.Itsbestperformerscreatenewcompanies,products,andevenindustries.AsSiliconValleydemonstrates,asmallnumberofpeoplecanhavea

bigimpactontheeconomy.ScholarsHeinerRindermannandJamesThompsonhavefoundthattheperformanceofacountry’stop5percent,asmeasuredbyIQ,iscloselycorrelatedwitheconomicgrowth.America’stop1percentintellectually,whichworksouttooverthreemillionpeople,hasanoutsizedeffectongrowth,accordingtoJonathanWaiofDukeUniversity.

Inasense,theUnitedStatesdoesanamazingjobgivenitsrawmaterial(apoorlytrainedlaborforce),andJapanunderperformsdespiteitsamazingrawmaterial(ahighlyskilledpoolofworkers).SouthKoreaandSingapore,aswellasSwitzerlandandsomenorthernEuropeancountries,dowellinbothdimensionsandhavethegrowthtoproveit.Thegreatadvantageoftheirmodelisthatitnotonlygeneratesstrongeconomicgrowthforthecountrybutalsobenefitsthemedianworker.Inotherwords,AmericahasmanyBillGatesesandWarrenBuffettsandGooglesandFacebookstobringupitsaverages.ButtopperformersandahandfuloftechnologybehemothsdonottranslateintorisingincomesformostAmericans.Forthat,theEastAsian–northernEuropeanmodelofgoodeducationforalliscrucial.TheFrencheconomistThomasPikettyisfamousforarguingthatcapitalisminitsessenceproducesinequalityandforadvocatinghighertaxestoamelioratetheproblem.ButinhistreatiseCapitalintheTwenty-FirstCentury,Pikettyacknowledgesthatthebestapproachtoreducinginequalityinthelongruniswideningaccesstogoodeducation.“Overalongperiodoftime,”hewrites,“themainforceinfavorofgreaterequalityhasbeenthediffusionofknowledgeandskills.”

EastAsia’seconomicsuccesshasledmanytowanttoemulateitseducationalsystem.ButaswithAmerica,Asiangrowthmightbeexplainedmorefundamentallybyotherfactors—likehardwork.Again,resultsfromPISA2012serveasevidence.Onaverage,studentsinShanghaiperformedbetterthanalltheirinternationalpeers,andwerefoundtobetwoyearsaheadofeventhebest-performingentryfromtheUnitedStates,Massachusetts.WhatisthesecretformulathatexplainsShanghai’ssuperiorperformance?Doesitteachnewmath?Oldmath?Chinesemath?Theanswermightbesimpler.U.S.SecretaryofEducationArneDuncanhasestimatedthatChinesestudentsspend25to30percentlongerayearinschoolthantheirAmericancounterparts.Bytheageoffifteen,whenthetestistaken,studentshavebeenatschoolforabouttenyears.So,withthenumberofschooldaysintheUnitedStatessetat180eachyear,afifteen-year-oldstudentinShanghaiwillhaveattendedschoolforwhatamountstoroughlytwotothreemoreacademicyearsthanafifteen-year-oldinMassachusetts.They’retwoyearsaheadinmathbecausethey’vetakenatleast

twomoreyearsofmath!It’snotChinesegenes,notabettersystem,notamagicformula—justmorework.IfMalcolmGladwellisrightwhenhesaysthatspendingtenthousandhoursinpracticehelpsyougainproficiencyinanarea,EastAsiansaregoingtoreachthatgoalmuchfasterthanAmericans,nomatterwhatthemodeofinstructionis.

AmericansshouldbecarefulbeforetheytrytomimicAsianeducationalsystems,whicharestillorientedaroundmemorizationandtesttaking.Iwentthroughthatkindofsystemandit’snotconducivetothinking,problemsolving,orcreativity.ThefounderofChina’sInternetbehemothAlibaba,JackMa,gaveaspeechrecentlyinwhichheaskedwhytheChinesewerenotasinnovativeasAmericansandEuropeans.HisanswerwasthattheChineseeducationalsystemteachesthebasicsverywell,butitdoesnotnourishaperson’scompleteintelligenceandcreativity.Itneedstoallowpeopletorangefreely,experiment,andenjoythemselveswhilelearning.“[Innovations]willonlycomeregularlyifwerethinkourculture...andoursports,”hesaid.“Manypainterslearnbyhavingfun,manyworks[ofartandliterature]aretheproductsofhavingfun.So,ourentrepreneursneedtolearntohavefun,too.”

TheAsiansystemdoesteachyoutoworkhard,toretainknowledgefortests,andtoperformunderpressure—allofwhicharevaluableskills.ThatmaybethesimpleproblemintheUnitedStatestoday—peopleareworkinglessatschool.(Thisistrueofthecountryingeneral,notofitsbest-performinghighschools.Thatsaid,evenamongthelatter,theacademicyearismuchshorterthanalmostanywhereelseintheworld.)AndAmericanuniversitiestodayhavebecomelessdemandingalongmanydimensions.Gradeinflationisjustonemetric.A2010researchpaperfoundthattheaveragenumberofhourscollegestudentsspendstudyingoutsidetheclassroomaweekdeclinedfromfortyin1961totwenty-sevenin2003.

Animportantnewstudydrewonsurveydata,transcripts,andalearningassessmenttoanswerthequestionofwhathigh-qualityAmericancollegesteachtheirstudents.Theanswerisstunning:notverymuch.RichardArumandJosipaRoksa,theauthorsofAcademicallyAdrift,summarizetheirfindingssuccinctly:

Largenumbersoffour-yearcollegestudentsexperienceonlylimitedacademicdemands,investonlymodestlevelsofeffort,anddemonstratelimitedornogrowthonanobjectivemeasureofcriticalthinking,complexreasoning,andwrittencommunication.Fiftypercentofsophomoresinoursamplereportedthattheyhadnottakenasinglecoursethepriorsemesterthatrequiredmorethantwentypagesofwritingoverthecourseofthesemester;one-thirddidnottakeasinglecoursethepriorsemesterthatrequiredonaverageevenmorethan40pagesofreadingperweek.Studentsinoursamplereportedstudyingonaverageonly12hoursperweekduringtheirsophomoreyear,onethirdofwhichwasspentstudyingwithpeers.Evenmorealarming,37percentdedicatedfiveor

fewerhoursperweektostudyingalone.Thesepatternspersistedthroughthesenioryearandarebroadlyconsistentwithfindingsonacademicengagementfromotherstudies.Thesefindingsalsoshouldbeconsideredinthecontextofempiricalevidencedocumentinglargedeclinesoverrecentdecadesinthenumberofhoursfull-timecollegestudentsspendstudying.

Andthenthereistheindustryof“amateur”sports,whichconsumesamassiveamountoftime,money,andattention.Manylargeuniversitieshavebecomemultimillion-dollarsportsfranchiseswithsmalleducationalinstitutionsattachedtothem.Someofthesesports,footballmostclearly,havetheeffectofsystematicallydamagingthebrainsofthestudents.YetasMalcolmGladwellhaspointedout,institutionsthataresupposedlydedicatedtoenhancingthecerebralcapacityoftheirstudentscontinuetopromote,celebrate,andprofitfromtheseactivities.Theideaofmeritandthedisciplineofacademicworkareunderminedasaresult.

Inmanycolleges,thesubjectsthatoftendefinetheliberalarts—thecorehumanities—haveinparticularbecomelessstructuredanddemanding.ThatmightbewhyemployershavebecomemoresuspiciousofmajorslikeEnglishandhistory.Thesocialsciences,bycontrast,haveincreasedinpopularityamongstudentsandincredibilitywithemployers.Theyremainsomewhatrigorous,representingamidpointofsortsbetweenthehumanitiesandthesciences.Itistherigoranddisciplineofasciencedegreethatmightimpressemployersthemost,notthespecificsubjectmatter.Employersknowthataphysicsmajorisnotlikelytousemuchquantummechanicsinajobinvolvingtradingcommodities.MybrothergraduatedsummacumlaudefromcollegewithadegreeinmathandthenwentintohighfinanceonWallStreet—supposedlyafieldinwhichnumbersmatter.Hefeltthathisundergraduatemajorgavehimnotechnicaladvantageoverahumanitiesmajorwhocoulddobasicarithmetic.

Anexcessivelyloosestructure,diminishingworklevels,andlowstandards—theseareflawsintheimplementationofaliberaleducation,notcharacteristicsofit.Thesolutionisnotthatpeopleneedtomajorinmarketingincollege,butthattheirliberaleducationshouldbemorestructuredanddemanding.Majorsshouldhavesomerequiredsequenceofbasiccourses,asineconomics.Thatwouldbethebestpreparationforbetterjobsandstrongercareers.Manyfirmslookfavorablyoncollegeathletesbecausetheyknowthatathleteshavethedisciplineandhabitsthatgoalongwithregular,longtrainingandpracticesessions.Ifyouwanttosucceedinlife,mostoftenyouneedtoputinthehours,developgoodhabits,workwellwithothers,andgetlucky.ThatistruewhetheryoustudyEnglish,physics,history,engineering,orbusiness.

Inthelate1980s,atthepeakofthebelief—orfear—thatJapanwasgoingto

becometheworld’slargesteconomy,itsmostinnovativecountry,andthemostdynamicsociety,thejournalistJamesFallowsspentseveralyearstheretoexaminehowtheUnitedStatesmightconfrontcompetitionfromthe“risingsun.”HecametotheconclusionthatthebeststrategywasnottotrytobecomeliketheJapanese—thatis,nottocreateasocietygroundedinself-sacrifice,all-powerfulgovernmentmandarins,andmassiveindustrialpolicy.Theanswerwas,asthetitleofhisbookindicates,tobeMoreLikeUs.ThatmeantemphasizingthedistinctivestrengthsoftheUnitedStates—itsopenness,innovation,decentralization,laissez-faireattitude,andentrepreneurialculture—buttodosoevenbetterthaninthepast.Thesamemightbetrueinthiscase.Thesolutiontotheproblemsofaliberaleducationismore—andbetter—liberaleducation.

4

TheNaturalAristocracy

BENJAMINFRANKLINISthemostimportantAmericanstatesmannevertohavebeenpresident.Franklinplayedapivotalroleintherevolution,helpingtodrafttheDeclarationofIndependenceandthenservingasadelegatetotheConstitutionalConvention.HewasministertoFranceduringtheRevolutionaryWar,securingwhatprovedtobecriticalFrenchloansinsupportoftheeffort.ButFranklinloomslargeinAmericanhistorymoreforsymbolismthanforstatecraft.HerepresentsanAmericanarchetype,perhapstheAmericanarchetype—theself-mademan.Oneoftenchildren,Franklinreceivedonlytwoyearsofformaleducation,whichendedwhenhewastenyearsold.Sevenyearslater,helefthishomeinBostonforPhiladelphiatomakehisownwayintheworld.Civicallyengaged,businessoriented,technologyobsessed,andsociallyskilled,Franklinwas“ourfoundingYuppie,”declarestheNewYorkTimescolumnistDavidBrooks.Franklin“wouldhavefeltrightathomeintheinformationrevolution,”WalterIsaacsonwritesinhisbiographyofthestatesman.“Wecaneasilyimaginehavingabeerwithhimafterwork,showinghimhowtousethelatestdigitaldevice,sharingthebusinessplanforanewventure,anddiscussingthemostrecentpoliticalscandalsorpolicyideas.”TheessenceofFranklin’sappealisthathewasbrilliantbutpractical,interestedineverything,butespeciallyinhowthingswork.

ThismightmakeBenFranklinsoundliketheperfectproponentofthe“dropoutofschoolandstartacompany”viewoflife.Totheextentthatanyschoolinghelpedhim,itwasthetraininghereceivedduringhisapprenticeshipasaprinter.ButitturnsoutthatFranklinhadasurprisinglybroadviewofthekindofeducationindividualsneedinordertoflourish.In1749,hepublisheda

pamphlet,ProposalsRelatingtotheEducationofYouthinPennsylvania,inwhichheoutlinedhisplansforanewacademyinthecolony.*Franklinbelievedthateducationshouldhelppeoplenavigatetherealworldastheyenteredcareersinpolitics,law,business,andotherfields.Atthesametime,hewantedyoungmentogainexposureto“thegreatoutlinesofknowledge.”†Thepurposeoftheireducationwouldbetoproduce“truemerit,”whichmeantjoiningabilitywiththeinclinationtoserve“Mankind,one’sCountry,FriendsandFamily.”

Franklinwantedstudentstobepartofaresidentialcollege,evenspecifyingthatitwouldideallybesomewherewithagarden,anorchard,ameadow,anda“fieldortwo.”Theyshouldlivetogether“frugally,”hewrote,andexercisefrequentlyto“renderactivetheirbodies.”ThesubjectsFranklinsuggestedtheystudywerebroadanddiverse:arithmetic,astronomy,geography,religion,agriculture,andhistoryalongmanydimensions(oflaws,customs,nature,andmorality).Inparticular,hestressedtheimportanceofthestudyofEnglishoverLatinandGreek.Heurgedthatgreaterattentionbeplacedonwritingthanonoratory,ashebelievedcommunicationinthemodernworldwasmoreeffectivethroughthewrittenthanthespokenword.OnewonderswhathewouldhaveurgedoncehesawtheimpactoftelevisionandtheInternet.

TheschoolFranklinenvisionedinthemiddleoftheeighteenthcenturylargelyresembleswhatweunderstandaliberalartscollegetobetoday.Franklinstruggledtoputhisideasintopracticeatthetime.HispamphletgotthewheelsturningforplansonaschoolinPhiladelphia,butwhentheacademyofficiallyopenedin1751,anoldguardofpiouseducatorsblockedhiseffortsatreform.ThetrusteeshehadhelpedrecruitcontinuedtoprioritizethestudyofLatinoverEnglish.Butinsubsequentdecades,theacademygrewintotheUniversityofPennsylvania,whichwentontobecomeoneoftheworld’smostdistinguishedliberalartsschools.

Franklinlikelywantedotherstoobtainamoregeneraleducationthanhehimselfhadreceived,becauseherealizedhisownsuccesswasaresultofanintenseandbroad-rangingcuriosity.Hewasfascinatedbyeverythinghesawaroundhim,fromdolphinstolunareclipses,andheexperimentedwithideasfromelectricitytorefrigeration.Attwenty-one,FranklinfoundedasmallclubofyoungprofessionalscalledtheJunto,whichmetregularlytodiscusstopicsincludingpolitics,science,andbusiness—almostlikeacollegeseminar.Andwhilehewasalwaystryingtomakestuff,Franklinwasalsophilosophizingandimaginingintheabstract.Thisishow,despitehislackofformaleducation,hebecameamajorscientificfigureofhistime,recognizedwithhonorarydegrees

fromOxford,Yale,andHarvardandawardedtheCopleyMedal(anearlierversionoftheNobelPrizeinscience).IsaacsonquotesDudleyHerschbach,Harvard’sNobelPrize–winningscientist,onFranklin’sscientificaccomplishments:“HisworkonelectricitywasrecognizedasusheringinascientificrevolutioncomparabletothosewroughtbyNewtoninthepreviouscenturyorbyWatsonandCrickinours.”

IfFranklinsaweducationasthepathtoserviceformankind,hisgreatcontemporaryThomasJeffersonmadeamoreurgentconnection:aliberaleducationwouldensurethesurvivalofdemocracy.In1778,JeffersonpresentedtotheVirginialegislature“ABillfortheMoreGeneralDiffusionofKnowledge,”inwhichhearguedthatallformsofgovernmentcoulddegenerateintotyranny.Thebestwayofpreventingthis,hewrote,is“toilluminate,asfaraspracticable,themindsofthepeopleatlarge.”Thestudyofhistorycouldserveasanespeciallyeffectivebulwark,allowingthepeopletolearnhowtodefeattyrannyfrompastexamples.Jeffersonwouldreturnagainandagaintotheimportanceofeducationinademocracy.Inhiselegantanderuditebook,BeyondtheUniversity,MichaelRoth,presidentofWesleyanUniversity,explains,“Thiswouldcreateavirtuouscircleoflearningandacitizenrythoughtfulenoughtoprotectitselffromgovernmentaloverreaching.”Overthecourseofhispoliticalcareer,Jeffersonadvocatedanumberofmeasurestospreadeducationfarandwide,includingpubliclyfundedschoolsandtheestablishmentofanationaluniversityinWashington.Afterservingassecretaryofstateandpresident,hereturnedtothiscentralobsessionbyfoundingtheUniversityofVirginia.

In1818,attheageofseventy-five,JeffersongatheredtogetherfriendsandassociatestoestablishanewschoolinCharlottesville,Virginia.Itwasauniversity“sothoroughlytheworkofhishandsthatitwastobecomeknownsimplyasMr.Jefferson’s,”JonMeachamwritesinhisbiographyofthethirdpresident.Itsobjectiveswereamixofthepracticalandphilosophical:totrainstatesmenandprofessionals,toexpoundontheprinciplesoffreedom,toteachmethodsofagriculture,andtoenlargethemindsandmoralsoftheyoung.HisproposedcurriculumwasmoreacademicthanFranklin’s,withagooddealofmathandscience,aswellasmodernandancientlanguages,lawandhistory,writingandgrammar.Jeffersonwasoneoftheearliestproponentsofelectives,believingthatstudentsshouldpracticethesamefreedomatschoolthattheywereallowedinademocracy.AndaswithFranklin’sschool,Jefferson’suniversitywasnonsectarian.Infact,theUniversityofVirginiawasuniqueinthatitsphysicallayoutwascenterednotonthechapelbutonthelibrary.

FranklinandJeffersonsharedtheviewthateducationwasawaytoensurethatthenewrepublicwouldbeaplaceofmerit,wherebirth,bloodlines,andhereditaryprivilegewouldnotcountformuch.Franklinwasaself-mademan,andthroughouthislifeheextolledthevirtuesofthosewhohadrisenthroughhardwork,talent,andskill.Hethoroughlyenjoyedthecompanyoftradesmen,smallentrepreneurs,andshopkeepers,seeingintheirrisetheideaofequalitythatwasattheheartoftheideaofAmerica.Jefferson’sprosediffered.Heoftenwroteabouttheneedtocreatea“naturalaristocracy.”WhilethissoundslikeaplanforaHouseofLords,Jeffersoninfactintendedtheopposite.His“naturalaristocracy”wasbasedstrictlyonmerit,toberefreshedconstantly,asopposedtoan“unnaturalaristocracy,”basedonbirth,wealth,andprivilege.Jeffersonbelievedthatallsocietiesinevitablyhaveelites—someone,inotherwords,hastobeontop—butthatAmerica’seliteshouldcomefromfindingthebestandbrightestandeducatingthemwell.“Thebestgeniuseswillberakedfromtherubbishannually,”hewrote.TheUnitedStateswouldbeabletobenefitfrom“thosetalentswhichnaturehadsownasliberallyamongthepoorastherich,butwhichperishwithoutuse,ifnotsoughtforandcultivated.”

ForJefferson,therewasonestepcrucialtocreatingagenuinenaturalaristocracy.Thepoorandrichhadtohaveequalaccesstoagoodeducation.That’swhy,despitebeingsomethingofalibertarian,herepeatedlyproposedthatthestatepayforuniversalprimaryeducationaswellasfundeducationatlaterstages.Hewasmetwithoppositionfrommanyquarters,mostlythosewaryofbiggovernmentorhighertaxes.Yetinterestingly,oneofhismostardentsupporterswasanoldfriendandpoliticalopponent,theconservativeJohnAdams.“Thewholepeoplemusttakeuponthemselvestheeducationofthewholepeople,andmustbewillingtobeartheexpensesofit,”Adamswrote.“Thereshouldnotbeadistrictofonemilesquare,withoutaschoolinit,notfoundedbyacharitableindividual,butmaintainedatthepublicexpenseofthepeoplethemselves.”Jefferson’sfearwasthatwithoutsuchasystemofpubliceducation,thecountrywouldendupbeingruledbyaprivilegedelitethatwouldrecycleitselfthroughanetworkofprivateinstitutionsthatentrenchedtheiradvantages.

WhatwouldthesefoundingfathersmakeofAmericatoday?Whatwouldtheymakeofacountrywhere,asThomasEdsallnotedintheNewYorkTimes,74percentofstudentsattendingthemostcompetitivecollegeswereraisedinfamiliesinthetopincomequartileandonly3percentcomefromfamiliesinthebottomquartile?Evenamongthebeststudents,familybackgroundmakesahuge

difference:High-scoringstudentsfromfamiliesinthetopincomequartilearealmosttwiceaslikelytogetcollegedegreesasstudentswithsimilarhighscoresfromfamiliesinthebottomquartile.Inaddition,criteriaforadmissionintothebestcollegesanduniversitiesthatseempurelymeritbased—likegrades,SATscores,andparticipationinextracurricularactivities—areactuallycorrelatedwithfamilyincome.(Thecorrelationisnotasstrongfortestscoresasforoutsideactivities.YouareonlyabletotakethatfascinatingunpaidsummerinternshipinSouthAfricaifyouhavethemeans.)EdsallquotestheeducationexpertAnthonyCarnevale:“Theeducationsystemisanincreasinglypowerfulmechanismfortheintergenerationalreproductionofprivilege.”

Halfacenturyago,theAmericanmiddleclasshadapowerfulpathtoahigh-qualityeducation.InthedecadesfollowingtheSecondWorldWar,theGIBillgaveawholenewgroupofAmericansaccesstothebestcolleges,andtuitionwasaffordableevenforthemiddleclass.Mostimportantly,publicuniversitieswerebooming.In1960,aneighteen-year-oldlivinginCaliforniacouldgetasuperbeducationatanyoftheUniversityofCaliforniacampuses—includingtheoneinBerkeley,whichhasmanydepartmentsthatrankinthetopfiveworldwide—atnocostwhatever.Zero.(Infact,inthosedaysaCaliforniaresidentcouldgothroughoneoftheworld’sbestpublicschoolsbeforeattendingBerkeleyforcollegeandlaterforgraduateschool,andhisorherentireworld-classeducation—fromkindergartentoaPhD—wouldhavecosthimorhervirtuallynothing.)Aslateasthe1970s,Berkeley’sannualtuitionforundergraduateswhowereCaliforniaresidentswasaround$700.Forthe2014–15academicyear,tuition(notincludingroomandboard)costsCaliforniaresidents$12,972.Nonresidentsarechargedanadditional$22,878.Berkeley’sownestimateofthetotalcostofattendanceforanonresidentstudentlivingoncampusisover$55,000ayear.Andunliketheverytopprivateschools,Berkeleydoesnothavetheendowmenttoprovideneed-blindfinancialaid.Asaresult,themakeupofitsstudentbodytodayisprobablyquitedifferentfromwhatitwasthreeorfourdecadesago.

MoststateuniversitiesfaceevendeeperpressuresthanBerkeley,whichoccupiesaspecialplaceinthepubliceyeandcanraiseprivatefundsaswell.Oncehighwaystothemiddleclass,theseschoolsarereelingfromdecadesofreducedsupportfromtheirstategovernmentsaswellasrisingcosts.Asaresult,manyhavecreatedthe“partypathway,”describedinElizabethArmstrongandLauraHamilton’sbookPayingfortheParty,inwhichanincreasingnumberofrichout-of-statekidswhocanpayfulltuitiongetrelaxedadmissionscriteria,

specialmajors,inflatedgrades,andfancyfacilities.Thebrightlow-incomestudents,whoareonthe“mobilitypathway,”getnoneofthis.Facingacademic,economic,andsocialpressures,theyhaveahigherburnoutanddropoutrate.Thosewhograduatedosowithamountainofdebt.

ThebestcollegesintheUnitedStatesaspiretoanideaofmerit,ofcreatingJefferson’snaturalaristocracy.Andtheydogivescholarshipstomanystudentswhocouldnototherwiseaffordtobethere,thoughthisstillhelpsaverysmallnumberofpoorstudents.Inaddition,thenumberofpeopleapplyingtothetopschoolshasexploded,andtheadmissionsratesarenowsolow,oftenunder10percent,thattheadmissionsprocesscanseemquitearbitrary.Compoundingtheproblemisthefactthateliteschoolsprovidemanyspecialpreferencesforlegacies,underrepresentedminorities,and—inthemostsignificantdeviationfrommerit—recruitedathletes.AformersenioradmissionsofficeratanIvyLeagueschooltoldme,“Ihavetoturndownhundredsofhighlyqualifiedapplicants,includingmanytrulytalentedamateurathletes,becausewemusttakesomanyrecruitedathleteswhoarenarrowlyfocusedandlessaccomplishedotherwise.”Theproblem,ashenotes,isnotathleticsperse,whichcombinestalentanddisciplineinanexemplaryway.Itisthattheprocessofrecruitmenthasbecomesointensethatthesystemisnowdistorted.WilliamBowen,aformerpresidentofPrincetonUniversity,hasdocumentedandarguedpersuasivelythatoverthelastfewdecades,collegesportsprogramsthatrecruitathleteshavewarpedthosecolleges’academicvalues.Anadmissionsofficialtoldmethatmanynowtakeinathleteswhoscore150to200pointslowerontheSATsthanotherstudents—amuchmoresignificantdropinstandardsthanforlegaciesorminorities—tobuildtheirsportsteams.Therecruitedathletesoftenstruggletokeepupwiththeacademicdemandsintheclassroom,whilegoodamateurathletesarefrozenoutofcollegesports.Theentireprocessshiftsthefocusofthecampusawayfromacademics.Andyet,nopresidentofaliberalartscollegedaressuggestthissystembechanged.

Ina2012essayintheAmericanConservative,CaliforniapoliticalactivistRonUnzpresentedstatisticsseemingtoshowthatthenation’stopcollegesanduniversitieshaveoverthepasttwodecadesmaintainedadefactoquotaforAsianAmericanstudents,limitingthemtoabout16.5percentofthestudybody,despitetheirexplodingapplicantnumbersandhighachievements.Thenumbersmaynotbeexactlyright.TwoIvyLeagueadmissionsofficersestimatedtomethatAsianAmericansactuallymakeupmorethan20percentoftheirenteringclasses—manydon’tdeclaretheirraceorareraciallymixed.Butincomparison,

atschoolsthatarelessreliantonnebulousadmissionscriteriasuchas“character”andbeing“well-rounded,”likeCaltechandBerkeley,AsianAmericansmakeupabout40percentofthestudybody.WinnersoftheUnitedStatesOlympiadsinmathematics,computing,physics,biology,andchemistryandoftheIntelScienceTalentSearchhavebeenmorethan60percentAsianAmericaninrecentyears.

AschoolfullofOlympiadwinnerswouldinfactlackbalance,andachievementsbasedentirelyonnumbersandtestsarenottheonlymeasuresofastudent’spotential.Yetit’sworthbearinginmindthat,historically,collegeshaveemployedintangiblecriteriainadmissionsspecificallytokeepoutbrightandambitiousnewcomers.InhisbookTheChosen:TheHiddenHistoryofAdmissionandExclusionatHarvard,Yale,andPrinceton,JeromeKarabeldemonstratesinpainstakingdetailhowsubjectiveadmissionsrequirementslikeinterviewsandinvolvementinextracurricularactivitieswereputinplacebyIvyLeagueschoolslargelytokeepJewishadmissionsfromrisinginthe1920sthroughthe1940s.Unlessthereareaggressiveeffortstocompensatefortheadvantagesofwealth,includingattendanceatprivateschoolsandparticipationinluxuryextracurricularpursuits,theAmericaneliteeducationalsystemrunstherisk,inJefferson’sterms,ofcreatinganunnaturalaristocracy.

Atonelevel,theseconcernsandcomplaintsmightseemirrelevant.Americancollegesanduniversitiesarebooming.Theirsuccessandfamehaveattractedapplicantsfromaroundtheworld.Agoodcollegedegreehasbecomemorecrucialineveryone’smind.Thepost-industrialeconomyrewardspeoplewhohaveacademictrainingandcredentials,or“knowledgeworkers,”evenmoresothanbefore.Collegesportshavebecomemorepopularandmoreprofitablefortheschools.Buttheyfaceonetrendthatseemsutterlyunsustainable:therisingcostofcollege.Theaveragecollegetuitionhasincreasedataneye-poppingpace—over1,200percentsince1978,thefirstyearcompleterecordswerekept.Thatisfourtimesthepaceoftheconsumerpriceindexandtwiceasfastasmedicalcosts.Thisextraordinarycostspiral,inanagewhenthepricesofalmostallgoodsandserviceshavedeclined,issurelyoneofthemoststrikingphenomenainmodernAmericanlife,andithaslargelybeenacceptedwithoutmuchcontroversy.

Thatriseincostisattheheartofmanyoftheconcernsaboutthevalueofaliberaleducation.Afterall,whenoneisquestioningwhetheraproductis“worthit”—beitanoutfit,acar,oraneducation—crucialtothatdeterminationisitsprice.Aliberaleducationwasaffordabletoamiddle-classfamilyin1965.Itis

muchlesssotoday.Thatmeansfamilieshavetomaketrade-offsbetweenspendingmoneyonaneducationandearmarkingitforotherthings.It’softennotedthatthedatashowthatacollegedegreeimprovesone’slifetimeearnings,sothatevenalargeinvestmentinacollegeeducationisworthit.Thatmaybetrue,butitalsoexplainswhyfamiliessoanxiousaboutthisonerouspricetagworryendlesslythattheirsonordaughtercouldjeopardizeeverythingbymajoringinthe“wrong”subjectorgettingalessmarketabledegree.Thefactthatwenowusethelanguageof“returnoninvestment”todescribetheexperienceofgettingeducatedisrevealing.

Whyhasthecostofcollegerisensoquickly?Oneplausibleexplanation,offeredbytheeconomistsWilliamBaumolandWilliamBowen,isthatcertainlabor-intensiveindustriessuchaseducationcan’treplacehumanswithmachinesorexpandproductionlinesinthewayotherindustriescan.TheeconomistRobertFrankgivesanexcellentexampletoexplainthisbasicidea:“whileproductivitygainshavemadeitpossibletoassemblecarswithonlyatinyfractionofthelaborthatwasoncerequired,itstilltakesfourmusiciansnineminutestoperformBeethoven’sStringQuartetNo.4inCminor,justasitdidinthe19thcentury.”Aseminarclassatagoodcollegewilltendtohavearatioofoneprofessorto,say,fifteenstudents.Ifyoubelievethat’sthebestwaytoteach,itcan’tbemademoreefficient.Thisiswhycostsineducationrisemuchfasterthaninthegeneraleconomy,whereautomationandoutsourcingcanreplaceexpensivelaborinsomewayortheother.It’strueinothersectorsoftheeconomyaswell.IfyouarehappylisteningtoarecordingofthesameMozartquartet,youcandoitvirtuallyforfree.Buttheliveexperiencehasbecomemuchmoreexpensiveovertheyears.Whetherit’stheBerlinPhilharmonicorBeyoncé,themoneyisintheactualconcert,notthedigitalrecording.

Thereareprobablyotherfactorsaswell.Bowenpointsoutthatit’sdifficulttomeasureproductivityinafieldlikeeducation—thatuniversitiesmighthaveinefficientadministrativesystems,ortheymightbepriceinsensitivewhenitcomestoacademicquality,spendingwhateverittakestobethebest.Allofthisistrue.ButitmightalsobethattheentiresystemofeducationintheUnitedStatesisapoorlydesignedmishmash,combiningsomeoftheworstelementsofthemarketandthestate.Itsharesthischaracterwithhealthcare.Inbothcases,theconsumerwantstheproductandyetcan’treallyjudgeitsquality.(Canyoureallydecidethatyoudon’tneedanMRI?Oracollegedegree?)Additionally,theconsumerdoesn’tpaydirectlyfortheproduct,atleastnotthefullprice.Third-partypayments,oftenfromthegovernment,havecomplicatedprocesses

andtimelines,whichfurtherobscurepricesignalsandmarketdiscipline.Finally,it’snotclearhowtojudgethevalueofaneducation.Isitjustthecollegedegreethatmatters?Oristheresomebroadermeasureofagoodeducation?Andhowwouldyoumeasurethelatter?Perhapsforthesereasons,overthelastthirtyyears,whileinflationhasbeenwrungoutoftheAmericaneconomyinalmosteveryothersector,educationandhealthcarecostshaverisenannuallyatmanytimestherateofinflation.

Measuringthequalityofeducationturnsouttobeextremelycomplicated.Mostcollegesarejudgedbyavarietyoffactors,includingresources,faculty,andfacilities.Chiefamongthem,though,istheaverageSATscoreofenteringfreshmen.Yetthetestscoresusedinadmissionsareameasureofwhatcollegestakein,notwhattheyproduce.ThefactthatanIvyLeagueschoolhasfreshmenwithhighSATscorestellsusthatitisagoodmagnetfortalentbutnothingelse.Whatshouldmatterishowstudents,includingthosewithlowSATscores,improveoverthecourseoftheirtimeinschool.Butwhatisthemeasurebywhichtojudgethatimprovement?AcademicallyAdrift,thebookmentionedinthelastchapter,hasbroughtthisissuetothenationalfore.UsingtheCollegiateLearningAssessmenttest,thebook’sauthorsfoundthat45percentofstudentsshowednoimprovementincriticalthinkingintheirfirsttwoyearsofcollege.Subsequenttestshavedemonstratedthatthispatterncontinuesintheirjuniorandsenioryearsaswell.Why?Asthebookshows,inmanycolleges,studentstakeeasycourseswithfewassignmentsandlittlehomeworkorreading.Thisresultsinlittleimprovedoutput.

Ifthesearetheproblemsofaliberaleducationtoday,theremightbeasolutionintheformoftechnology.Educationisasphereofliferemarkablyunchangedoverthecourseofcenturies.WelearntodayinwaysthatwouldseemlargelyfamiliartotheancientGreeks.Ateacherstandsinfrontofagroupofstudentsandlecturesthem,attimesinvolvingthemindiscussion.Alltherevolutionsininformationtechnologyinrecentdecadeshavehadhardlyanyeffectonthisbasicmechanism,oronthefundamentaloperationsofschools,colleges,anduniversities.

Untilnow.EnterMOOCs,orMassiveOpenOnlineCourses,amongotheronlinesystemsofinstructionthatpromise,orthreaten,tochangethewayeducationisprovidedintheUnitedStatesandaroundtheworld.MOOCsarecoursesthatcanbetakenonlinebywatchingvideosoflecturesandcompletingassignmentsandteststhataregradedbycomputerprogramsorhumans.Insomecases,studentsengageinvirtualclassroomdiscussionsthroughstructuredchat

roomsorbulletinboards.Sofar,MOOCsrarelyofferanyofficialformofcredit—thoughthatislikelytochangeovertime.Thelargerideabehindthemissimple.Acoursethatcouldbetakenbyafewhundredpeopleatauniversityisnowavailabletotensofthousands,evenhundredsofthousands,acrosstheglobe.Byearly2014,thetwomainplatformsforMOOCsintheUnitedStateshadaroundtenmillionstudentscollectively.Coursera,thelargestplatform,hadstudentsfromnearlytwohundredcountriestakingalmostsixhundredcoursesinavastdiversityoffields.MOOCsrepresentthemostambitiousefforttowidenaccesstoeducationinhistory.Andtheyhavealotofpeopleatuniversitiesveryworried.

InOctober2012,IwasaskedtomoderateapanelforaconferenceoneducationsponsoredbyTimemagazineandtheCarnegieEndowment.MypanelincludedfourdistinguishedcollegepresidentsandAndrewNg,oneofthefoundersofCoursera.Atthetime,Courserawasjusthalfayearold.ProfessorNg,aStanfordcomputerscientist,madeapresentationinwhichhespokeofthegreatpotentialofMOOCsandofhisambitiontoprovideneweducationalopportunitiestomillionsofpeople.Usinghisowncourseasanexample,Ngexplainedhowonlinetechnologyhadmassivelyexpandedthenumberofstudentswhocouldenrollinasingleclass,fromfivehundredorsoatStanfordtotensofthousandsonline.Hewasmodestandstressedthatthisnewmodelofeducationisinitsearlystagesandwouldneedmanyadjustments.

Theeducationalestablishmentcouldnothavebeenmoreskeptical.Allthecollegepresidentsonthepanelexpressedconcernsanddoubtsaboutthisnewtechnology,assuringtheaudience(mainly,othercollegepresidents)thataphysicalcampus,in-classteaching,andthepeerexperiencewouldalwaysbeessentialandirreplaceableaspectsofhighereducation.“Lotsofpeoplesignupbutmostdropout,”theformerpresidentofoneprestigiousuniversitycomplained.Ngacknowledgedthatthecompletionratewaslow,buthenotedthatthecompletionratesforhisStanfordcoursesarealsolow.Hundredsofpeopleattendthefirstclassortwobutneverreturn.Anotherattendeeinsistedthatvideolecturesbystarprofessorscouldneverreplacethepersonalinteractionbetweenscholarsandstudents.Ngagreed,remindingeveryonethatMOOCsareintendedprimarilyforpeopleindevelopingcountrieswhowouldotherwisehavelittleaccesstothecollegeseminar.Healsonoted,however,thatthereislittlecontactbetweenprofessorsandstudentsinlargelecturecoursesatAmericanuniversities.Ingeneral,thepanelistsandaudiencetreatedNgwithcourtesybutpersistentskepticism.Icouldn’ttelliftheyweresurehisnew-fangledideas

wouldn’tworkoriftheywereworriedthattheywould.A2013surveybearsoutthisanecdotalimpression.OnlyoneinfiveprofessorspolledbyGallupbelievethatonlineclassescouldbeaseffectiveasthein-classexperience.

Forme,thediscussionhadthefeelingofdéjàvu.IhadspenttenyearsatNewsweek,oneoftheworld’smostsuccessfulprintpublications,withtensofmillionsofreadersandhundredsofmillionsofdollarsinrevenues.WhiletheInternetwasblossoming,wehadtoldourselvesthatwestillhaduniqueadvantages,thatpeoplewantedqualitiesparticulartoourproduct,thatthemagazinebusinesshadgonethroughcyclicalchallengesbefore,andthatwewouldweatherthestorm.Asithappened,theTimeconferencewasheldonthedaythatthefinaleditionofNewsweekwaspublished.(Ithassincebeenresuscitatedwithamorelimitedcirculation.)MyonlysuggestiontotheaudienceaboutonlineeducationwasthattheykeepinmindNewsweek’sfate.TheInternetwastransformingallindustriesinsomewayoranother.Thechancethatitwouldleaveeducationalonewashighlyunlikely—andtofailtorecognizethatwasnotthewaytoplanforthefuture.

Theeducators’concernswereunderstandable.TworecentstudiesfoundthatofmillionswhosignedupforMOOCsonthetwolargestonlineplatforms,only4percent(forCoursera)and5percent(foredX)fullyfinishedthecourses.ThemediausedtheselowcompletionratestocastdoubtonthepromiseofthetechnologyandtosuggestthatMOOCshadbeenoverratedafterall.Butthisisamisreadingoftheresults.Recallthatanyoneanywhereintheworld,withanylevelofeducation,cansignupforaMOOC.Thereisnobarriertoentry.Soitshouldcomeasnosurprisethatmanyofthepeoplewhodosignuparenotseriousaboutit.Courserareportsthatthedropoutrateafterthefirstweekisveryhigh,almost40percent.Butthen,ofthosestudentswhostaywiththecourseafterthefirstweek,nearly50percentcompleteit.Andkeepinmindthattheinitialenrollmentnumbersaresolargethatevena5percentcompletionrateisgigantic.In2012and2013,approximately43,000studentsfinishedthefirstseventeencoursesofferedbyedX—anaverageof2,529studentsperclass,whichwouldbeafivefoldexpansionofevenalargelecturecourse.Yale’sNobelPrize–winningeconomistRobertShillertaughthiscourseonlinein2013forthefirsttime.Morepeopletook(andcompleted)itinthatoneyearthanthetotalnumberofstudentshehadtaughtinhisthirty-twoyearsasaprofessor.

Thepotentialofonlineeducationisdazzling.Anyone,nomatterhowrichorpoor,youngorold,HaitianorMongolian,canaccesstheworld’sbestcourses,watchthegreatestlectures,andstudythosesubjectsheorshehadalways

dreamedabout.KhanAcademy,theextraordinaryonlineplatformwiththreethousanddifferentvideosthatteacheverythingfromalgebratobiologytohistory,hasalreadychangedthewaywethinkaboutlearning.Onecrucialnewmethodisthatof“flippingtheclassroom,”sothatstudentslisten(orwatch)alectureathomeandthenworkonproblemswithteachersinschool.Itisamuchmoreefficientandeffectiveuseofbothateacher’sandastudent’stimeandenergy—passivelearningathomebyyourself,activelearningatschoolwithateacherhelping.Likeanygreattechnologicalshift,MOOCsandsimilarventureswillhaverippleeffectsacrossthefieldofeducation.Theywillforceteacherstodobetter,sincetheywillnowbemeasuredagainsttheworld’sbest.Theywillpressurecollegestocontaincosts,perhapsfocusonthethingstheydowell,andfindnewwaystoenhanceproductivity.Theywillmakestudentsdecidewhatreallymatterstothem—knowledge,credentials,classroomdiscussions—andfindthebestwaystogetit.Thebestcollegeswillfacefewerchallenges,partlybecausetheyofferauniqueexperienceandlargelybecausetheyaresellingmembershiptoavaluableprivatenetworkingexperience.Butnewmodelsofeducationwillrise,liketheMinervaProject,afor-profitliberalartsschoolthatprovidesapared-downcollegeexperienceusingonlineclassesandeliminatingcostlyaccessorieslikefacilitiesandsportsteams.Andthisisjustthebeginning.Onlinelearningtechnologywillpromptchangesinwayswehavenotevenanticipatedyet.MOOCsarebarelythreeyearsold.

KeytotheinnovationsinteachingthatcouldcomefromMOOCsisthepromiseof“bigdata.”Asmillionsofpeopletakeonlinecourses,theinstitutionsthatofferthemwillhaveimmenseamountsofinformationintheirsystems.Properlyanalyzed,thisinformationcouldproducearevolutioninlearning.Educationhasalwayssoughttocatertotheindividual.Ilearndifferentlythanyoudo,andideally,wewouldallbetaughtinwaysthataretargetedtoeachofusspecifically.That’swhy,formostofhumanhistory,theveryrichhadtheirchildrentaughtbyprivatetutors.InhisbookTheOneWorldSchoolhouse,KhanAcademyfounderSalmanKhanpointsoutthateducationtodayreliesonamodelfortheclassroomfromtheindustrialera.Inthemid-nineteenthcentury,whenPrussiadecidedtoprovideeducationforthemasses,itmodeleditsschoolsonthefactoriesofthetime.Studentswerebunchedtogetherbyageandputonavirtualconveyerbelt.Instructionwasthrownatthem,andtheypickedupwhatevertheycouldastheywerepushedforwardtograduation.Othercountriesusedsimilarmethods.Perhapsthiswastheonlywaytoeducatelargenumbersofpeople,buteducationwasnotcustomizedtotheindividualinanysense.Infact,

themorepeoplewhohadtobeeducated,thelesscustomizedtheexperience.Nowthatcanchange.Withbigdata—andstronganalysisandsmart

programsprocessingthatdata—educatorscanlearnagreatdealaboutwhatisandwhatisn’tworking.Asstudentsprogressthroughacourse,theirteacherscouldgetfeedbackrelatedtoeachindividual’sperformance.Thesystemcoulduseearlyindicatorslikeanswersonquizzesandproblemsetstocreatespecificremedialcontent,changethepace,andtailorreadingandexamsinwaysthatwouldbemosteffectiveforthatparticularstudent.Ifthousandsofstudentsaroundtheworldstumbledovercertainquestionsinquizzes,itwouldsendabroadersignaltoeducatorsthattheteachingofthatsectionorthedesignofthetestsrequiredfixing.Bigdatacouldbeanearlydetectionsystemthatallowedforquickcoursecorrections.

Awell-structuredonlinecoursethatusedthebenefitsofbigdatawouldthusdeveloplikeatree,witheachstudentproceedingdownaparticularsetofbranches,specificallytailoredtohisorherstrengthsandweaknesses.Thisisarevolutionaryconceptbecauseitaltersoneofthefundamentalrulesofeducation.Untilnow,ithadalwaysbeenassumedthatincreasingthenumberofstudentscouldbedoneonlyatthecostofprovidinglesspersonalattentiontoeachindividual.Inindustryjargon,scaleandcustomizationwereinverselycorrelated.Butnow,scaleandcustomizationcanbepositivelycorrelated.Themorestudentswhotakeacourse,thelargerthedatabasecreated,whichcanthenbeanalyzedandappliedtopersonalizeeachstudent’sexperience.Thismightbethepathtohighlyeffectiveindividuallearningonamassscale.

YetthegreatestpromiseofMOOCs,andonlinelearningingeneral,remainstheoriginalintent:expandingaccess.StamenkaUvalić-Trumbić,aneducationexpertformerlywithUNESCO,notedin2011thatthenumberofpeopleenrolledinhighereducationacrosstheworldwas165million.Atcurrentgrowthrates,thatnumberwouldreach263millionin2025.Butitwillbeimpossibletogettothosenumbersusingthepresentsystemofeducation.“Accommodatingtheadditional98millionstudentswouldrequiremorethanfourmajoruniversities(30,000students)toopeneveryweekforthenextfifteenyears,”Uvalić-Trumbićexplained.Thatpaceofexpansionisnothappeninganywhere.EveninChina,wherethegovernmenthasmadeamajorcommitmenttoenlargingaccesstohighereducation,thenumberofstudentsisgrowingatamuchfasterratethanthenumberoffacultyandfacilities.“Inevitably,thegreatestimpactofMOOCswillbeinthedevelopingworld,whereitwillbepossibleformillionstogeteducatedwhosimplywouldnothaveotherwise,”

saysRichardLevin,theCEOofCoursera.Already,72percentofregisteredusersofedXcoursescomefromoutsidetheUnitedStates.

ThemakeupofthoseenrolledinMOOCsisquitediverse.Thevastmajorityarenotinthecollege-agecohort.Theyrangeinlevelsofeducation,thoughmosthaveacquiredsomepost-secondarydegree.Thecoursesofferedcoveramixofpreprofessionalandgeneraleducationtopics.AstudypublishedinNovember2013foundthatofthestudentsenrolledinatleastoneofthethirty-twoMOOCsofferedbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniathroughCoursera,50percentsaidtheyweretakingitoutofgeneralcuriosityor“justforfun.”Forty-fourpercentsaidtheywereenrolledto“gainspecificskillstodomyjobbetter.”Inotherwords,alargeportionofMOOCusersareinterestedinacquiringaliberaleducation—orenhancingtheonetheyreceivedyearsago.Wearemovingtowardatimewhenanyonecangetelementsofaliberaleducationandyetbedisconnectedfromtheexperience—andcost—ofattendingaliberalartscollege.Isaid“elements”ofaliberaleducation,asitmightwellbethatresidentialcolleges,classroomseminars,late-nightdiscussions,andextracurricularactivitiesarecollectivelyessentialtoprovidingthecompleteexperience.Certainlyforthebestcolleges—say,thetopfiftyinAmericaorthetoponehundredworldwide—thebenefitsofbeingadmittedtoasmallclubwilljustifyasteepprice.Butthatdoesn’tmeanimportantaspectsofthiseducationcannotbeprovidedtomillionsofpeoplearoundtheworldatafractionofthecost.Andifthevalueofaliberaleducationisreal—inopeningthemind,preparingpeopleforthefast-changingworld,andbuildingacapacityforfreedom—thenthefactthatmillionsofpeopleinChinaandIndiaandRussiaandBrazilwillhaveaccesstoitiscauseforcelebration.

Let’sreturntothat2013studyshowingthathalfofthepeoplewhosignupfortheseonlineclassesaredoingsonotjustforaspecificprofessionalpurpose.Weseethesamephenomenonintheexplosionofinterestinadultlearningcourses,books,andvideos.Whyareallthesepeoplearoundtheworldsigningupforcoursesinarthistoryandpsychologyandphysics?Ifitdoesn’thelpthemgetajob,whydotheywanttoknowthisstuff?

*Allspellingsandcapitalizationinwritingsbythefoundingfathershavebeenmodernizedwherenecessary.†Atthetime,advocatesofeducation,BenjaminFranklinandThomasJeffersonincluded,thoughtitfittingonlyforyoungwhitemen.

5

KnowledgeandPower

IFIGNORANCEISbliss,whydopeoplewantknowledge?ThisisaquestionwithalongpedigreeinWesternculture.PrometheusbroughtfirefromMountOlympusdowntoearthanditsmortalinhabitants.Indoingso,heenragedZeus,thesupremedeity,whohadhimchainedtoarockandtorturedforeternitybyaneaglefeastingonhisliver.AndthatwasjustthepunishmentforPrometheus.HumanbeingsweresentacurseintheformofPandora,withherboxofillsthatwouldafflicthumankindforeveronceitwasunlocked—disease,sickness,sorrow,envy,hatred.

Prometheus’sfiremayhavebeenametaphorforknowledge.InAeschylus’sversionofthelegend,inadditiontotheburningbranch,Prometheusintroducedhumanstothearts,includingwriting,mathematics,astronomy,architecture,andmedicine.Inotherwords,Prometheusdecidedtobringaliberalartscurriculumdownfromtheheavens—andheandallofhumankindpaidadreadfulpriceforit.

SodidAdamandEve.Thestoryattheheartofbiblicalhistoryisaboutthedangersofknowledge.AccordingtoGenesis,thereweremanytreesintheGardenofEden,butonlytwohadnames:theTreeofLifeandtheTreeofKnowledge.GodforbadeAdamandEvefromeatingthefruitofthelatter,warningthatiftheydid,theywoulddie.*Theserpent,representingSatan,toldthecouplenottobetimid,assuringthemthateatingthefruitwouldnotresultindeath.Goddidn’twantthemtoeatit,theserpenttoldEve,becauseiftheydid,“youreyesshallbeopened,andyeshallbeasGods,knowinggoodandevil.”

SoAdamandEvepluckedthefruitandateit.WhenGodrealizedwhattheyhaddone,hewasmercilessinhispunishment.HetoldEve,“Iwillgreatly

multiplythysorrowandthyconception,”andthencondemnedwomenforeternitytothepainsofchildbirth.HetoldAdam,“Cursedisthegroundforthysake;insorrowshaltthoueatofitallthedaysofthylife.”And,ofcourse,hebanishedthemfromtheGardenofEden.Inotherwords,humanbeingscametoearthasfallencreatures,borninoriginalsin,becausetheydesiredknowledge.

ThisnotionthatknowledgeisdangeroushasrecurredinWesternthoughtformillennia.GiventhattheWesthasmadesuchgreatstridesinitsunderstandingoftheuniverse,itisinterestingtonotethatnon-Westernculturesdonothaveequivalentmythsabouttheperilsoflearning.Therearesomesimilarstoriesinothercivilizations,butnothingwiththeimportofthetaleofPrometheusorthebiblicalfallofman.PerhapsitisbecausetheWesthasbeensopersistentlyinquisitivethatithasalsobeenfearfuloftheconsequencesofitscuriosity.

Thephrase“ignoranceisbliss”comesfromabeautifulpoem,“OdeonaDistantProspectofEtonCollege,”bytheeighteenth-centuryEnglishwriterThomasGray.Init,thepoetwritesofhisreturntohisoldschoolandisdelightedtoseethe“happyhills,...redolentofjoyandyouth.”Heconjuresupabucolicfantasyofinnocentpleasures.ButhethenthinksaboutallthebadthingsthatareinstorefortheseyoungmenintherealworldoncetheyleavethecloisteredenvironmentofEton—fear,jealousy,anger,despair,poverty,death,and“Sorrow’spiercingdart.”It’sbetterthattheynotbemadeawareoftheserealities.“Thoughtwoulddestroytheirparadise,”heconcludes,“whereignoranceisbliss,/’Tisfollytobewise.”

Andyet,despitethedanger,despitethesorrow,wekeepaskingquestionsandsearchingforanswers.Cicerobelievedthatitwasinournaturetobe“drawntothepursuitofknowledge.”Manymodernbiologistsconcur,arguingthatthecoreofbeinghumaninvolvestheuseofthebrain.Morethanthreemillionyearsago,ourancestorsbegantowalkontheirhindlegs.Thatfreedtheirhandstodootherthingsand,mostsignificantly,coincidedwiththegrowthofthehumanbrain.Thebigbrainisthesinglelargestpointofdifferentiationbetweenhumanbeingsandotheranimals.RichardDawkinsexplainswhy:

Otherspeciescancommunicate,butnootherspecieshastruelanguagewithopen-endedgrammar.Nootherspecieshasliterature,music,art,mathematicsorscience.Nootherspeciesmakesbooks,orcomplicatedmachinessuchascars,computersandcombineharvesters.Nootherspeciesdevotessubstantiallengthsoftimetopursuitsthatdon’tcontributedirectlytosurvivalorreproduction.

Inthebeginning,beforewehumanswerewritingoperasandmakingiPads,ourancestorscombinedtheirbrainpowerwiththeirhands—nowfreefromthetaskofwalking—toforageforfoodandmakesimpletools.Theyusedtheir

primitivementalcapacitytofindwaystoimprovetheircircumstancesinthenaturalenvironmentratherthansimplyadaptingtothemlikeallotheranimals.AsJacobBronowskiwroteinTheAscentofMan,manbecame“asingularcreature...notafigureinthelandscape”but“ashaperofthelandscape.”Humanssoughtwaystocontroltheirenvironmentandthusbecamehunter-gatherers,farmers,warriors,and,eventually,buildersofcitiesandstates,ofcivilizations.

Attheheartoffarmingandbuildingwasthesearchforknowledge,butofapracticalkind.TheancientGreekswerethefirsttotrytounderstandtheworldinanabstractsense.Theycalledsuchanexplorationphilosophy,whichmeans“loveofwisdom.”Thisinvolvedunderstandingnotonlyhumannaturebutalsonatureitself.Thelatterexplorationtheycalled“naturalphilosophy”—whichmuchlaterbecameknownasscience.Overtime,adividegrewbetweenthestudyofhumanbeingsandthestudyofnature.Theformerseemedsoftandspeculative,thelatterhardanddefinitive.BertrandRussell,theearly-twentieth-centuryscientistandphilosopher,oncepithilydescribedthedifferencebetweenscienceandphilosophy.“Science,”heexplained,“iswhatweknow,andphilosophyiswhatwedon’tknow.”Inthisview,philosophyinvolvesspeculationsaboutthingsofwhichonecannothavedefiniteproof.Onceyougaincertaintyaboutaparticularsubject,itmovesfromtherealmofphilosophytoscience.ForRussell,philosophywasimmenselyimportantbecausetherewasavastarrayofthingsonedidnotknowmuchaboutandperhapscouldnotknowmuchabout.Butphilosophystillwas,inhisphrase,“incompletescience.”Thewordscience,afterall,comesfromtheLatinwordfor“toknow.”

Russell’snotionofphilosophyasaprecursortosciencemakessomesensehistorically.Humanbeingswonderedwhythesunroseorthetidescamein,andspeculatedthatthereweredivinespiritsbehindthem.TheGreekspositedallkindsofcausesfornaturalphenomena,oftenattributingthemtogodsandgoddesses,butalsotophysicalandbiologicalfactors.Overthecourseofcenturies,scientificinquiry—theorizing,experimentation,observation—rejected,corrected,andamendedmanyofthesetheories.Wenolongerthinkthattherearespiritsintrees,thattheSunGodrideshischariotacrosstheskieseveryday,orthatfemaleembryosarecreatedduetoa“deficiencyofheat”inthebody(Aristotle’sexplanation).Wenolongerthinkthattheearthisflatorthatitisatthecenteroftheuniverse,twoviewsthatwerewidespreadamonglearnedscholarsforcenturies.Sciencereplacedphilosophy,inRussell’sterms.

Thesearchforknowledgegavehumanbeingspower,justastheBible

anticipated,andthatpowerhasbeenusedforgoodandill.Butonthewhole,therehasbeenasteadyandpersistentefforttoimprovehumanlife.Progressintechnologyandmedicinecertainlyhasdarksideeffects—thedangersofnuclearwar,theimpactofeconomicgrowthontheenvironment,themoraldilemmasofcloning.Overthelastfivehundredyears,however,theconsequencesofknowledgehavebeenpositive,andoverthelasttwohundred,staggeringlypositive.Atthemostbasiclevel,peopleenjoylongerandhealthierlives,possessgreatermaterialprosperity,andareorganizedinwaysthathavereducedcrueltyandmisery.

Justasareminderofwhatscientificprogressmeansforhumans,hereisabriefaccountofhowoneofthemostpowerfulmenoftheseventeenthcentury,CharlesIIofEngland,wastreatedafterhehadamildstrokein1685(fromwhichhealmostcertainlywouldhaverecoveredonhisown).Hisfourteenphysicians,thebestintheland,beganbybleedinghim,takingapintofblood.Theking’schiefphysiciandecidedtheyhadnotgonefarenoughandremovedanextraeightouncesbycuttingintotheking’sshoulders.Vomitingwasinducedandpurgativesandenemasdelivered.Charlesregainedconsciousness,butoverthenextfivedays,hisphysicianscontinuedtoadministerenemasandbleedings.Hewasgivensneezingpowder,forcedtodrinkvariouspotions,andhisfeetweresmearedwithpigeondung.Finally,afteranantidotecontaining“extractsofalltheherbsandanimalsofthekingdom”wasforceddownhisthroat(accordingtohisphysician’sjournal),thekingdied.Andthatwastheworld’sfinesthealthcareatthetime.

LifeexpectancyaroundthetimeofCharlesIIwasaboutthirtyyears,anditremainedroughlythesameuntil1900.Lifeexpectancytodayisseventyyearsfortheworldpopulationasawhole,andhigherforpeopleinadvancedcountries.Recentmaterialprogresshasbeenastonishing.Beforetheturnofthemillennium,theUnitedNationsestimatedthatglobalpovertyhaddeclinedmoreinthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcenturythaninthepriorfivehundredyears.TheaverageChinesepersontodayisfortytimesricherandlivesthirtyyearslongerthanheorshedidfiftyyearsago.China’sprogressisthemostremarkable,butitiswidelyshared.In1960,nearlyoneinfivechildrendied.Todaytheratioisoneintwenty.Itisquitepossiblethatextremepoverty—lifeonlessthan$1.25aday—willbeextinctinageneration.

Thesenumbersareseenmostlyasatestamenttoscientificknowledge.And,ofcourse,it’sself-evidentthatmedicine,vaccines,andhygienehaveallcontributedmightilytotheimprovements.Butthesoftersciencesand

humanitieshavealsoyieldedpowerfulbenefits.Humanbeingshaveorganizedthemselvesinmoreproductiveways,economically,politically,andsocially.Andthesechangesinorganizationandbehaviorhavebeentheresultofbetterideas,sometimesarrivedatthroughspeculationandinsight,thoughmostlythroughtrialanderror—whichistheonlywaythatexperimentsinsocialsciencecantakeplaceintherealworld.

InhisbookTheRationalOptimist,MattRidleynotesthatovertime,humanbeingslearnedthatopenexchanges—ofideas,goods,andservices—producedpowerfulbenefitsforall.Healsoexplainsthattheriseofspecialization,orthedivisionoflabor,increasedeconomicoutputacrosstheglobe.Ideaslikethesewereadoptedhaltingly,withmanystepstakenbackwardaswellasforwardastheunsuccessfulcopiedthesuccessful.InTheBetterAngelsofOurNature,StevenPinkermakesthenowfamousclaimthatwearelivinginthemostpeacefultimeinhumanhistory.Hearguesthattheriseofcertainideashashadapowerful,beneficialimpactontheworld.TheEnlightenmentconceptsofindividualliberty,autonomy,anddignity,forinstance,andthebeginningofa“humanitarianrevolution”transformedtheworldbyendingpracticeslikeslavery.Pinkeralsowritesaboutthemorerecent“rightsrevolutions,”whichhaveledtolesscrueltytowardminorities,women,gays,andotherswhowerenotatthecenteroftheoldpowerstructuresofsociety.

Somehumanistsbalkattheideathathumanbeingshavemadeanyprogressinthesefundamentalways.ArewebetteroffthantheancientGreeks?theymightask.Theanswerisyes,overwhelmingly,unlessyouwereoneofthehandfulofmaleGreekaristocrats(andeventhen,aslongasyoudidn’tgetatoothache).Practiceslikeslavery,serfdom,dueling,andtheabuseofwomenandchildrenhavedwindledoverthelastfewcenturies—asaconsequenceofbroad,humanisticideas,thebedrockofaliberaleducation.Tobesure,moreprogressisneeded,andinsomecases,newandperverseformsofoppressionhavereplacedtheold-fashioned,easilyidentifiableones.Butthatcannotnegatetherealitythatknowledgehasledtohumanadvancesintangibleways.

Fourhundredyearsago,absolutemonarchsgovernedmuchoftheworld,andthevastmajorityofthehumanpopulationpossessedlittleeconomicandpoliticalfreedom.Today,mostpeopleliveindemocracies,andwhatevertheirflaws,theyareusuallybetterthantherapaciousdictatorshipsofthepast.Untilrecently,acountry’seconomicpoliciesweredesignedtoproducethemaximumbenefitforatinyelite.ThinkofAfricainthenineteenthcentury,wherewholenationswereturnedintoregionsofslavelaborandeconomicextraction,tobenefitasmall

numberofEuropeans.Whatfollowedafterdecolonizationinthe1950swerelocaldictatorswhowereequallybrutalandrapacious.Today,Africaisstillhometosomedictatorshipsandfacesrampantcorruptionincertainareas.Butcomparedwiththreedecadesago—oracenturyago—therehasbeensignificantprogressalongalmosteverypolitical,economic,andsocialmeasure.

Thefundamentalreasonfortheriseoftherest—thefactthatdevelopingcountriesaregrowingmuchfasterthanindecadespast—hastodowiththediffusionofknowledge.WhenIvisitdevelopingcountries,nearlyeverywhereIfindtheyarerunmoreeffectivelytodaythantheyweredecadesago.ThoseatthehelmofeconomicpolicyarealmostinvariablygraduatesofprogramsineconomicsfromWesternuniversities.Theystudiedat,say,theUniversityofChicago,orGeorgetown,ortheLondonSchoolofEconomics,andthenreturnedtotheircentralbanksandfinanceministriestoimplementsomeofwhattheyhadlearned.Healthcareisbeingprovidedinamoresystematicandthoughtfulway,basedonideasthathavebeentriedandprovedelsewhere.Thesekindsofpoliciesarereinforcedbyabroadercultureofeducationalexchangethattakesplacethroughconferences,meetings,publications,andtelevisedconversation.It’snotperfectbyanymeans,butit’salotbetterthanitwasthirtyyearsago.

Socialscienceisnotscience—because,astheNobelPrize–winningeconomistHerbertSimonputit,“thesubjectsofourstudythink”—butsomeacademiclearninghasbeenappliedintherealworld.Governmentshavecometoadoptbestpracticesfromthesocialsciences,thoughtherearelimitstoprogressinfieldsasmessyaseconomicsandpoliticalscience.Evenstepsforwardproduceahostofunintendedconsequencesthathavetobedealtwith.Advancedindustrialcountriescontinuetofacemanyproblemstoday.Yetconsidertheirexpansiveambitions:toprovideeconomicgrowthandsocialsecurityforeveryoneoftheircitizens.Governmentshavenevertriedtodosomuchforsomany.

Knowledgecanbeusedforterriblepurposes.Fascism,communism,andIslamicfundamentalismhaveallmanagedtoweaveadangerousideologyoutofelementsofknowledge.Butpeoplehavealwayssoughtpower,andsomeofthemhavejustifiedthatpursuitthroughbadideas.Theseideas,inalmostallsuchcases,arecoversforpowergrabs.That’snottosaythatideasdonothavealifeoftheirown.Nationalismandreligioncanbepowerfulideologiesthatholdsocietiestogetherandstirhumanbeingstoaction,evenhorrificviolence.Buthistorically,thishasnotbeenenoughtoproducerealsuccess,thekindthatproduceslong-termtrendsinasociety’sfavor.Governmentsorganizedaround

badpoliticalandeconomicideashaverequiredforce,coercion,andbriberytosucceed—andthesearedifficulttosustain.CountrieslikeNaziGermanyandSovietRussiafailedbecauseothercountries,suchastheUnitedStates,opposedthem.AndfreesocietieslikeAmericaprevailedinlargepartbecausetheyhadgreaterstayingpower,becausetheirorganizingideasweresuperior.U.S.strategymighthavebeenbetterthanGermany’sandtheSovietUnion’sinWorldWarIIandtheColdWar,buttherealcauseofvictorywastheabilityoftheU.S.economytooutproducetheNaziandSovieteconomies.Inthelongrun,societiesbasedonsubmissiongenerallyfindthemselvesatoddswithnaturalhumanimpulses.Theonesthathavesucceededinsomefashion,likeChina,haveactuallyallowedagreatdealoffreedomandautonomyinseveralspheresofsocietywhilemaintainingcontrolinothers.ThemoreChinaopensitselfuptoabroadexplorationofknowledge,tohumanisticideas,toopenexchanges—inotherwords,thevaluesthatliberaleducationcelebrates—themorethegovernmentwillstruggletomaintainitstightpoliticalcontrol.

TheNewYorkTimescolumnistNicholasKristofhaspointedtothreeideasassociatedwiththehumanitiesthathavepositivelyshapedtheworld.First,henotesthephilosopherIsaiahBerlin’swarningthatthebeliefinasingle,all-encompassingtruthinevitablyproducesblindarrogance,possiblyleadingtodangerousconsequences.Second,hehighlightsJohnRawls’scontributiontopoliticalthought:thatthemostjustsocietywouldbetheoneyouwouldchooseifyoudidnotknowhowrichorpoororhowtalentedoruntalentedyouwerewhenbornintoit.Sincethoseareoftenmattersofgeneticsandluck,Rawlspositedthatweshouldjudgeasocietyfrombehindthis“veilofignorance.”Lastly,KristofhighlightstheworkofPeterSinger,whohasbroughtthetreatmentofanimalsandthepainthathumanbeingsoftenneedlesslycausethemtotheforeofourmoralconsciousness.Thesearejustafewexamples.Therearemanyotherideasinthesocialsciencesandhumanitiesthatrepresent,insomewayoranother,anaccumulationofknowledgeandagrowthininsightmarkinganadvanceinhumanaffairs.

Ofcourse,mostpeoplereadbooks,understandscience,andexperienceart,nottochangetheworld,buttochangethemselves.Butisourcurrentsystemofliberaleducationchangingyoungpeopleforthebetter?

*Therearethosewhoarguethatthetreeisreallyanarbitrarysignofobedience.ButastheMiltonscholarDavidScottKastannotesinhisintroductiontoParadiseLost(Indianapolis:Hackett,2005),xlv,whythenisitnotcalledthe“TreeofObedience”?Theforbiddenfruitofknowledgeisclearlycentraltothestory.

6

InDefenseofToday’sYouth

ONEOFTHEenduringbenefitsofaliberaleducationisthatitbroadensus.Whenweabsorbgreatliterature,wecomefacetofacewithideas,experiences,andemotionsthatwemightneverotherwiseencounterinourlifetime.Whenwereadhistory,weencounterpeoplefromadifferentageandlearnfromtheirtriumphsandtravails.Whenwestudyphysicsandbiology,wecomprehendthemysteriesoftheuniverseandhumanlife.Andwhenwelistentogreatmusic,wearemovedinwaysthatreasoncannotcomprehend.Thismaynothelpmakealiving,butitwillhelpmakealife.Weallplaymanyroles,professionalandpersonal,inonelifetime.Aliberaleducationgivesusagreatercapacitytobegoodworkers,butitwillalsogiveusthecapacitytobegoodpartners,friends,parents,andcitizens.

Doesaliberaleducationmakeusbetterhumanbeings?Studentsatcollegesanduniversitiescertainlygetahigh-quality,expensiveeducationaspreparationtosucceedintheoutsideworld.But,accordingtomanycritics,eventhebeststudents—andsometimesespeciallythebest—arelimitedincrucialways.Toputitbluntly,thechargeisthattheyareachievement-orientedautomatons,focusedonthemselvesandtheircareers.Theydonotseeminterestedindelvingdeepintothesearchforinnerknowledge,givingreigntotheirpassions,ordevelopingtheircharacter.The“MeGeneration”wasthenamegiventothebabyboomers.Timemagazineranacoverin2013onthemillennialswiththetitle“TheMeMeMeGeneration.”

Inearly2001,thecolumnistDavidBrookswroteanowfamousessayintheAtlantictitled“TheOrganizationKid,”basedondaysofmeetingshehadwithstudentsandprofessorsduringavisittoPrincetonUniversity.Intheessay,

BrooksdescribedthenextgenerationofAmericanleadersandtheirdailyschedule:“Crewpracticeatdawn,classesinthemorning,resident-adviserduty,lunch,studygroups,classesintheafternoon,tutoringdisadvantagedkidsinTrenton,acappellapractice,dinner,study,sciencelab,prayersession,hittheStairMaster,studyafewhoursmore.”It’sanimpressivelist,butBrooksfoundthatthisintensesetofactivitieswasmostlyintheserviceofbuildingaresumeandcamewithlittleintellectualcuriosity.Evenmorenoticeable,tohim,wasthetotallackofdesiretothinkaboutmoralissues,tobeintrospective,ortofocusonthebuildingofcharacterorvirtue.Intheend,heconcluded:

AtthetopofthemeritocraticladderwehaveinAmericaagenerationofstudentswhoareextraordinarilybright,morallyearnest,andincrediblyindustrious.Theyliketostudyandsocializeingroups.Theycreateandjoinorganizationswithgreatenthusiasm.Theyareresponsible,safety-conscious,andmature.Theyfeelnocompellingneedtorebel—notevenahintofone.Theynotonlydefertoauthority;theyadmireit.“Alienation”isawordonealmostneverhearsfromthem.Theyregardtheuniverseasbeneficent,orderly,andmeaningful.Attheschoolsandcollegeswherethenextleadershipclassisbeingbred,onefindsnotangryrevolutionaries,despondentslackers,ordarkcynicsbuttheOrganizationKid.

In2014,theessayistWilliamDeresiewiczsteppedupthecriticismwithhisbookExcellentSheep:TheMiseducationoftheAmericanEliteandtheWaytoaMeaningfulLife.Init,DeresiewiczrecountshisexperiencesteachingundergraduatesatYaleanddescribesthemashavingspenttheirlivesgettingreadytoattendelitecollegesbutlackinganysenseofdirectiononcetheyarrived.Theyhadjumpedthroughonehurdleafteranotherinordertogetaliberaleducation,buttheydidn’tknowwhattodowithitoncetheyhadtheirdegree.Asaresult,Deresiewiczfindsthemtobeprivileged—“entitledlittleshit[s]”isthephraseheuses—butintellectuallyandmorallyuncurious,uninterestedinexploringthelargerquestionsaboutthemeaningoflife,andunwillingtotakeintellectualrisks.Theyarecomfortablybourgeoisandachievementoriented,buttheycarelittleabouttheinnerselfandthesoul.

Thenotionthatyoungpeoplearesomehowcallowandmorallyunseriousisnotanewcharge.In700BC,theGreekpoetHesiodwroteaboutit.ThephilosophersXenophonandPlatoweredismayedbythemoraldecayoftheiryouth.TheRomanssawlossofvirtueallaroundthem.TheVictoriansdecriedthedeclineinreligiosityinthenextgeneration.AndwhileAmericahasalwaysbeendifferent—bornnew,focusedonthefuture,itselfanexperimentinmodernity—ithashaditsowntraditionofjeremiads.FromthePuritanstoHenryDavidThoreau,toconservativeshorrifiedbythe1960s,toChristopherLasch,whowroteTheCultureofNarcissismin1979,theyallworriedaboutanew

generationthatwaslessinterestedincommunityandmoreinterestedinitself.Themostrecentroundofcritiquesbeganwiththeconservativeintellectual

AllanBloomandthepublicationofhis1987book,TheClosingoftheAmericanMind.Butsincethen,conservativesandliberalshavejumpedinwithequalfervor.Brooks,Deresiewicz,andAnthonyKronman,formerdeanoftheYaleLawSchool,havealljoinedthechorus,soundingasimilar,plaintivetone.Butmostofthecomplaintstodayarequitedifferentfromthereactionaryconcernsofthepast.Aftercenturiesofbemoaningthefactthattheyoungaretoorebelliousanddisrespectful,theproblemtoday,itappears,isthattheyarenotrebelliousanddisrespectfulenough.Theyaren’twillingtochallengeconventionalwisdom,neithertheliberalpietiesthatoffendedAllanBloomnortheconservativeonesthatgallDeresiewicz.Afterhavingbeenpilloriedfortryingtodestroythebourgeoisorderinthe1960sand1970s,theyoutharenowscornedforbeingtoobourgeois.Toomanyyoungpeople,itseems,arewelladjusted,responsible,andlookingforgoodjobs.Ifonlytheywouldwanderoffcampusandstudytantricrituals,smokepotandreadHegel,andstageasit-inortwo—thentheywouldshowustheirinnersouls.(Ofcourse,imaginethereactionofmanyofthesamecriticswerethecollegestudentsactuallytodothat!)Youcan’thelpbutsympathizewiththesophomorewhosaidtome,“Ithinkthatwhateverwedid,wewouldbefallingshortbysomemeasure—andpeoplewouldwriteaboutthat.”

Infact,thepicturethatthecriticspaintcertainlydoesringtrueinitsfocusonthecultureofachievementthatdominatesstudentlivesatthetopeducationalinstitutionstoday.Butit’sstrangetoblamethestudentsforsomethingthatislargelybeyondtheircontrol.Afterall,theydidnotdevisetheintensesystemofteststhatcomprisethegatewaytoAmericanhighereducation,nordidtheycreatethehighlycompetitivejobmarketinanxiouseconomictimes.Admissionsofficesnowprizenothinglessthanperfection.IonceaskedtheheadofadmissionsatanIvyLeaguecollege,“Doyoutakeinmanykidswhohavefailedinsomesignificantwayinhighschool?”Heimmediatelyanswered,“No,thatwouldplacethematadisadvantagecomparedwithotherswithbetterrecords.”Ipointedoutthathowonerespondstoandrecoversfromfailureisoneofthemostimportantcharacteristicsofanindividual,probablyonethatrevealsmoreabouthisorherfuturesuccess.Theadmissionsofficer,adeeplyeducatedscholar,saidheunderstood,butnotedthatifheadmittedkidswhohadfailedinsomeway—withtranscriptsandSATscoresreflectingthisfailure—thecollegewoulddropinitsrankingsandits“win-lossratio”againstotherkeyschools(that

isthepercentageofstudentswho,whenadmittedtotwoschools,acceptoneovertheother).Thepressureisintense,forthecollegesandthekids.Isitsuchawonderthatstudentsrespondastheydo?

Thepressuredoesn’tstoponcetheygetintocollege.Theracecontinueswithmarkerssetuptopointthemtowardsummerjobs,internships,andfellowships,andfinallyfull-timejobs.Theprocessofgettinghiredataprestigiousbankorconsultingfirmnowinvolvesamarathonofinterviewsandexaminations,withthousandsapplyingforthefewpositionsonoffer.Butthecriticsseemtofeelthatinconfrontingthisgruelingsystemofrewards,kidsshouldtakeiteasy,relax,followtheirbliss,andsearchfortheirsouls.Apparently,GoldmanSachswillunderstand.

Moreover,students’focusonachievementhasnot,sofarasIcantell,producedyoungmenandwomenwhoare,insomeway,mean,selfish,orcruel.There’sreallynoevidenceforthisatall.Theyareprobablylessbigoted,racist,andsexistthanpriorgenerationsofstudents,somethingthat’seasytocaricatureaspoliticalcorrectnessbutisadmirablenonetheless,especiallyifyou’reaminority,awoman,orgay.Ihavespenttimeoncollegecampusesandaroundyoungpeople,andcertainlyIfindthemtobethoughtful,interesting,andstimulating.ProfessorStevenPinker,whohasspentmuchmoretimewithcollegestudents(teachingthem),haswritteninthesamevein.Buttheseareanecdotes.Isthereanyevidence?Infact,thereis.Since1966,UCLA’sHigherEducationResearchInstitute(HERI)hasaskedincomingcollegefreshmenasetofquestions.Thedatacollectedshowthefollowing:Overthelastfourdecades,studentshavebecomemoreconsciousoftheneedtomakemoney.Butmuchofthatchangetookplacefrom1967to1987,andthepercentageoffreshmenwhoidentify“becomingwellofffinancially”asapersonalobjectivehassteadiedsignificantlysincethen.That’ssurelyarationalresponsetoaneconomythathasproducedfewergoodjobs,wherethemedianincomehasflatlined,andwhereglobalizationandtechnologyarereplacingallkindsofonce-privilegedtasks.Insuchcircumstances,tobeconcernedaboutone’sfuturemightbeasignofintelligence!Otherlifeobjectivesthathaveriseninimportancetostudentsare“becomingacommunityleader,”“helpingotherswhoareindifficulty,”and,interestingly,“makingatheoreticalcontributiontoscience,”noneofwhicharesignsofselfishness.

Thedataalsoshowthatstudentstodaycombinetheirworldlyaspirationswithastrongdesiretodogood.ThenumberswhovolunteerforprogramslikethePeaceCorpsandAmeriCorpshaverisensubstantially.In2014,Teachfor

Americareceivedoverfiftythousandapplications,morethantwicethenumberreceivedin2008.Manytalentedandhighlycredentialedstudentschoosetoworkatnonprofitsforawhile.It’struethatnongovernmentalorganizationshavebecomecool,butthatisthepoint.Theyhavebecomecoolpreciselybecauseyoungpeopletodayviewthemasavaluableandworthwhilewaytospendpart—orall—oftheirlives.Asmuchasanygenerationbeforethemthatmighthavegoneintopoliticsandgovernmentorvolunteeredforwarandexploration,theywanttodogood,changetheworld,andfollowtheirprinciples.Theyjustdoitinanincremental,practical,best-practiceskindofway—moreMcKinseythanMotherTeresa.

Somewhatdifferentfrom“collegestudents”arethemillennials—generallythetermisusedforpeoplebornfrom1980to2000.Thechargesagainstthemaresimilar,though,andnastier.ThecoverstoryinTimemagazinementionedatthebeginningofthischapter,andwrittenbyitstalentedhumorcolumnistJoelStein,accusesthemillennialsofnarcissism,entitlement,and(thisisanewone)laziness.Thefirstchargeispresentedasa“cold,hard”fact.CitingtheNationalInstitutesofHealth,Steinwrites,“Theincidenceofnarcissisticpersonalitydisorderisnearlythreetimesashighforpeopleintheirtwentiesasforthegenerationthat’snow65orolder.”ButasthejournalistElspethReevehaspointedout,thisfindingisdisputedbyotherscholarswhoarguethattheresearchmerelyshowsallyoungpeopletendtobesomewhatnarcissisticbutthatthenarcissismfadesovertime—forall.Or,toquotefromthe2010studythatReevecites,“First,weshowthatwhennewdataonnarcissismarefoldedintopreexistingmeta-analyticdata,thereisnoincreaseinnarcissismincollegestudentsoverthelastfewdecades.”Asforslothfulness,thereisreallynoevidenceforthisatall.ThebasicproblemforAmericanworkersofallageshasbeenthattheirhoursandproductivitykeeprisingbuttheirwagesdonot.

A2014Nielsenreport,Millennials:BreakingtheMyths,offerssomedataonthegeneration’sattitudetowardvolunteering.In2011,75percentmadeadonationtoacharity,71percentraisedmoneyforone,and57percentvolunteered,“morethananyothergeneration.”Thethreecausestheycarethemostabout,accordingtothereport,areeducation,poverty,andtheenvironment.AstudyofthegroupsponsoredbytheCaseFoundation,alsoin2014,cametoverysimilarconclusions.Ofthe87percentofmillennialswhohaddonatedtoanonprofit,morethanhalfhadgivenmorethanonehundreddollars.Ina“TEDTalk”explainingthebehaviorofmillennials,marketingexpertScottHesscontraststhemwiththeirpredecessors,“GenerationX.”Insteadofbeing

“slackers,”“judgmental,”and“anti-corporate,”hesaid,millennialsare“leaningforward,”“engaged,”“inclusive,”and“tolerant,”andtheybelievethat“commerce”canbe“lubricatedbyconscience.”Andunlikegenerationsrightbeforethem,theydon’tviewtheirparentsasadversariesbutratherasfriendsandhelpers.PerhapsIsaythisbecauseI’maparent,butisthissoterrible?

Aconstantrefrainonehearsabouttheyoung,whethermillennialsorstudentsoryoungworkers,isthattheyareutterlyfocusedonthemselves.TheysetuptheirownFacebookpages,tweet,andsendpicturesofthemselveseatingorplayingsports.InatalkatPrincetoninNovember2012,DavidBrookspraisedtheself-abnegationofGeneralGeorgeMarshall,whorefusedtoaskforcommandofOperationOverlord—theD-dayinvasionofEurope—becausehethoughtitwouldbeself-serving.IlovethatstoryaboutMarshallmyself,butIalsorecognizethathelivedinadifferentage.Thoseweretimeswhenlargeinstitutions—privateandpublic—dominatedlife.Theywerepowerfulandstable,andtheylookedafterindividualsfortheirentirecareers.Yourtaskwastofitin,toputtheinterestoftheinstitutionaboveyourown,tobeagoodteamplayer.Thenyouwouldberewardedwithsecurityandsuccess.(Marshallwassubsequentlyappointedsecretaryofstate,thensecretaryofdefense.)Today,everyoneistold,thatcompacthasbeenbroken.Everythingisinflux.Youmustbeentrepreneurialandrecognizethatyouwillneedtochangejobsandevencareersoveralifetime.Nocompanywillstayloyaltoyou,norcanyoulockyourselfintooneplace.Thebillionaire-founderofLinkedIn,ReidHoffman,wroteabooktitledTheStart-upofYou:AdapttotheFuture,InvestinYourself,andTransformYourCareer,toexplainhowtosucceedintoday’sworld.Theultimateirony,surely,isthattheverycommentatorswhoareurgingyoungAmericanstobelessself-obsessedarebusilybuildingtheirownpersonalbrands,completewithwebsites,Facebookpages,andTwitteraccounts.Ifit’srightforthem,whyisitnotrightforeveryoneelse?

Somethingstheyoungdon’tdo.Ingeneral,politicalactivismoncampuseshasdeclinedinrecentdecades—despitespikesduringthefirstReaganandObamacampaigns.Butthatlackofenthusiasmforpoliticsagainreflectsabroadersocialtrend.MostAmericansaredeeplydisenchantedwithpolitics.YoungerAmericansbelievethattheU.S.governmenthasbecomedysfunctionalandpolarized.TheyoungmightchoosetoeffectsocialchangebyworkingwithNGOsratherthanworkingforgovernment,butthatisaboutthemechanismnotthegoal.Andgiventhestateofpolitics,thebureaucracyofgovernment,andtheintrusionsofahyperactivemedia,surelytheyarebeingrational,maybeeven

wise.PerhapsthemoststrikingresultfromtheHERIsurveyinvolvesthebroadest

issue:thenumberofincomingfreshmenwhoconsider“developingameaningfulphilosophyoflife”essentialorveryimportanthasplummetedfrom86percentin1967to45percentin2013.ThatnumberisprobablywhatBrooks,Deresiewicz,andothersaredescribinginricherdetailintheirportrayalsofcollegecampusestoday.Anditmakesthemworriedaboutthepresentandnostalgicforanearlierage.

Iunderstandthenostalgia.Today’sstudentsdon’tseemasanimatedbybigargumentsasgenerationsofthepastdid.Theydon’tmakebigspeechesaboutgrandphilosophicalissues.Theydon’tstayuplatearguingaboutNietzscheorMarxorTolstoy.Butthatispartofthetenorofthetimes,somethingstudentsreflectratherthancreate.WhenIwasgrowingup,theColdWarwasraging,andthatmeanttherewasagreatcontestofideastakingplacearoundtheworld.PeoplewonderedwhethercountriessuchasIndiawouldgocapitalist,communist,orsomethinginbetween.Thesepoliticalideasmatteredtopeople—youngandold—andhadhugeconsequences.Andthepoliticalideas,inturn,restedonlargephilosophicalideasaboutthenatureofhumanbeingsandsocieties.Iarrivedatcollegein1982,which,itturnedout,coincidedwiththelastgaspoftheideologicalbattlethathaddominatedthetwentiethcentury.RonaldReaganhadcometopowerandhadcalledtheSovietUnionanevilempire.TheSovietswerestillonthemarchinmuchoftheThirdWorld.Communismandcapitalismwerestillideasinbattlearoundtheworld.

MyfriendsandIwouldsitaroundincoffeeshopsandpassionatelydebatetheAmericannuclearbuildup,theproxywarinCentralAmerica,Reagan’sandThatcher’spolicies.Thedivisionsweredeep,theanswerswereunknown,andtheconsequenceswerebelievedtobehuge.In1983,ABCairedatelevisionmoviecalledTheDayAfter,dramatizingwhatlifeinAmericawouldlooklikeinthewakeofanuclearwar.ItranfortwohoursinprimetimeandwasfollowedbyaninterviewofthensecretaryofstateGeorgeShultzandalongdiscussionincludingHenryKissinger,ElieWeisel,CarlSagan,WilliamBuckley,andRobertMcNamara.Forweeksafterward,peopletalkedaboutthemovieandthepoliticsandethicsinvolvedinmakingit.Collegestudentsweredeeplyengagedbythesekindsofevents.TheymarchedbythethousandsoverthedivestmentcampaignagainstSouthAfrica,AmericansupportforthecontrasinNicaragua,andthenuclearfreeze.Butitallemanatedfromthatcentralphilosophical-politicalcontestofideasbetweencommunismandcapitalism,Leninismand

democracy.Weliveinaverydifferentagetoday,oneinwhichtherearefewergrand

ideologicaldebateswithgreatconsequences.ItisinconceivablethatanythinglikeTheDayAfterwouldbemade,letalonetriggermuchdiscussion.Islamicterrorismisasecuritythreatanddidprovokesomedebateafter9/11,butithaslimitedpotencyandcertainlyhasnochanceofseducinganon-Muslimcountry.EveninMuslimcountries,jihadistshavetoresorttoterrorpreciselybecausetheycanconvinceonlyasmallbandofextremistsofthestrengthoftheirideas.Theyposeathreatbutnotanideologicalthreat.WehavenoisypartisanshipinWashington,butoverfairlyroutinepoliticaldifferences.Onissues,bothpartiesareactuallymuchcloserthantheywerethirtyorfortyyearsago.Asaresult,ouryoutharenotveryideological.Theycombineamixofimpulses—capitalist,sociallyliberal,supportiveofsocialwelfare,butuncomfortablewithbureaucracyandregulation.Itdoesn’tquiteadduptoapassionatepoliticalphilosophy.Andcertainly,itdoesn’ttakethemtothebarricades.

Ourageisdefinedbycapitalism,globalization,andtechnology.Thetrendschanginglifecomefromthoseforces—poweringanewinformationrevolutionthatcreatesnewindustriesovernight,pushingthefrontiersofcomputerlearning,changingmedicineinfundamentalways,allowingbillionstoriseinChinaandIndia,andalteringthestructuresofeconomic,political,andsocialpowereverywhere.Theiconsoftheageareentrepreneurs,technologists,andbusinesspeople.MarkZuckerbergandJeffBezosarefarmoreimportantsymbolsthananypoliticiantoday,andtheyoccupythespacethaticonicpoliticalfiguresdidinearliereras.Theyoungreflecttoday’srealities.Theirlivesaremoreinvolvedwiththeseeconomicandtechnologicalforcesthanwithideologyandgeopolitics.Andthatmeansthereislessscopeforgrandtheorizing,fewerintenselate-nightbullsessions,lessstirringeloquenceatthestudentforumsandpoliticalunions.It’sanewworld,andtheyoungknowit.

Butisthissobad?Aretheissuesthatstudentstodaythinkaboutlessimportantthanthoseofwarandpeace?Aretheirheroesinferiortothoseofpastages?ThegeekycultureofthetechnologyeraislessconspicuouslyinterestedinideasthanColdWarsocietywas,withitsgreatstatesmenandphilosophers.Butisitanyworse?ConsiderBillGates,perhapstoooldnowtobesexybutcertainlytheiconicfigureofthisage.Atechnologyentrepreneurandbusinessman,Gateswasoneofthefirstlarger-than-lifeprivatefiguresincontemporaryAmerica.Heisinformal,brainy,meritoriented,andseeminglyuninterestedinshowingoffhiswealth.Onthewhole,thesearegreatvaluesto

transmit.Gatesisalsodeeplyinterestedinideasthatrangefromsciencetoeconomicstoeducation.Hisspeechesandblogpostsarefilledwithdiscussionsofbooks,includingarguments,analyses,anddataaboutthem.Hiskindofwonkerymaynotlooklikeagrandexerciseinphilosophy,butheisactivelyengagedwithimportantideasthatcouldchangetheworld.

Moreimportant,hismainhandiworknow,theBill&MelindaGatesFoundation,seesitscentralmissionassavingthelargestnumberofhumanlivesitcan,nomatterwheretheylive,whatcolortheirskinis,orwhatpassporttheycarry.Inotherwords,itisbuiltonanidea,thatallhumanlifeisofequalvalue,somethingonlyafewcharitiesbelieveinoracton.ThismightoncehavebeenconsideredaChristianidea—thatweareallequalinGod’seyes—butGateshastranslateditintoasecularone,andheisgivingawaytheworld’slargestfortuneinserviceofit.HisfriendWarrenBuffett,thesecond-richestmaninAmerica,isgivingawaymostofhiswealthtothesamecause—withoutaskingforanycredit,noteventohavehisnameputonthefoundation’sdoor.(ThatissurelyanactthatbearssomesimilaritytoMarshall’smodesty.)

Inhiswritingsandtalks,DavidBrooksemphasizeshisconcernthattheyounglackalanguageaboutvirtuetoday.Theyare,hebelieves,“morallyinarticulate.”Andit’struethatwedon’tusewordslikehonorable,noble,andvirtuousmuchthesedays,butsurelythatishowGates’sandBuffett’sactionsshouldbedescribed.Theyareexamplesofpeoplewhohavebeenmovedtotakelarge,importantactionsoutofdeepconvictions,ideas,andvalues—outofaphilosophyoflifeandacommitmenttothoseideas.Theirmodelissurelyasinspiringasanystatesmanorgeneralofthepastwhospokeinloftytonesaboutgoodandevil,honorandsacrifice.

NoteveryonecandowhatGatesandBuffettaredoing.Collegestudentstodaysearchformoralityandthemeaningoflifeindifferentwaysthaninpriorages,aswithanynewgeneration,especiallyintimesoftremendouschange.Theyaremoreincrementalandpractical.Theyseektruth,butperhapsthroughquieteravenuesthantheheroiconesofthepast.Theytrytocombinetheirgreaturgeswithagoodlife.

TheHERIsurveydatashowthattheobjectivemostimportanttostudents,besidesmakingmoney,israisingafamily.Thatnumberhasbeenremarkablystableovertheyears,risingsomewhat,andisnowaround75percent.It’sabourgeoisconcern.Butistherereallysomethingsoullessabouttryingtomakealiving,createahome,andraiseafamily?Oneofthehigherachievementsoftheliberaldemocraticprojectissurelythatpeopletodaycanspendlesstime

worryingaboutrevolutionandwarandfocusinsteadonbuildingaprivatespherewithinwhichtheycanfindmeaning,fulfillment,andhappiness.IrememberreadingonceaboutajudgeinSouthAfricawhospoketoAmericancollegestudents.Shecontrastedthehigh-stakespoliticsinhercountry—thebreakdownofapartheid,thebirthofanewcountry—withthetriviashereadaboutinAmericannewspapers.Andsheconcludedbyferventlyhopingthatonedayhercountrywouldbenormalenoughtohaveitspapersfilledwithtrivia.

Thereareplentyofchallengesabroadandathome,injusticeandimbalancesthatneedtobecorrectedandreformed.Buttherearealsothosetimesandplaceswherepeopleareluckyenoughthatprivatevirtuesmightbecultivated.AsJohnAdamsfamouslywroteduringtheAmericanRevolution,“Imuststudypoliticsandwar,thatoursonsmayhavelibertytostudymathematicsandphilosophy.Oursonsoughttostudymathematicsandphilosophy,geography,naturalhistoryandnavalarchitecture,navigation,commerceandagricultureinordertogivetheirchildrenarighttostudypainting,poetry,music,architecture,statuary,tapestryandporcelain.”Somaybetodaythey’rewritingappsratherthanstudyingpoetry,butthat’sanadjustmentfortheage.

Thesearenotthesortsofambitionsthathavepeoplerallyingtotherampartsanddeclaiminginpurpleprose,buttheyarestillrealandauthenticandimportant.Andtheyareworthabriefdefense,whichiswhatIhaveattemptedhere.ThismuchIwillconcede:Becauseofthetimeswelivein,allofus,youngandold,donotspendenoughtimeandeffortthinkingaboutthemeaningoflife.Wedonotlookinsideofourselvesenoughtounderstandourstrengthsandweaknesses,andwedonotlookaroundenough—attheworld,inhistory—toaskthedeepestandbroadestquestions.Thesolutionsurelyisthat,evennow,wecouldallusealittlebitmoreofaliberaleducation.

Notes

Liberaleducationisatopiconwhichmanyexcellentbookshavebeenwritten.IhaveusedafewfootnotesinthetexttohighlightparticularworksonwhichIreliedforsomehistoricalbackground.Therestofmysourcesareacknowledgedintheseendnotes.

1:ComingtoAmerica

16Ascollegeenrollmenthasgrown:U.S.DepartmentofEducation,NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,DigestofEducationStatistics2013,Table322.10.TheDigest,publishedannuallybytheNationalCenterforEducationStatistics,isahighlyaccessiblesourceforstatisticsonhighereducation.Thedataareupdatedthroughouttheyearonlineathttp://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/.

16inearlierperiodsofeducationalexpansion:Formoreonthepost–WorldWarIIexpansioninhighereducationandthesimultaneousriseinthehumanities,seeLouisMenand,“TheHumanitiesRevolution,”inTheMarketplaceofIdeas:ReformandResistanceintheAmericanUniversity(NewYork:W.W.Norton,2010),63–73;andWilliamM.Chace,“TheDeclineoftheEnglishDepartment,”AmericanScholar,Autumn2009.TheHumanitiesIndicators,aprojectoftheAmericanAcademyofArtsandSciencesavailableonlineatwww.humanitiesindicators.org,alsotracksdataonthetwentieth-centuryriseandfallinthestudyofthehumanities.

17“Ihavetospeak”:PhilipRoth,Portnoy’sComplaint(NewYork:VintageBooks,1994),164.17Herearethedata:NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,Digest,Table311.60.18Anotherestimate:Measuresoftheliberalartsvarybysource,dependinglargelyonhowacademicfieldsareclassified.JustinPope,“LiberalArtsCollegesForcedtoEvolvewithMarket,”AssociatedPress,Dec.30,2012,estimatesthatbetween100,000and300,000ofthecountry’sapproximately17millionundergraduatesattendaliberalartscollege,thatis,aresidentialcollegethatexistsindependentofanylargeruniversity.Thesamearticleestimatesthataboutone-thirdofbachelor’sdegreesintheUnitedStatesareawardedintheliberalarts.TheDigestplacestheundergraduatepopulationat18millionasof2012(Table303.60).Italso

dividesdegreesintosixbroadcategories:humanities;socialandbehavioralsciences;naturalsciencesandmathematics;computersciencesandengineering;education;business;andotherfields,acategorythatincludesprofessionalprogramssuchasagricultureandlawenforcement.Ifjustthefirstthreeareclassifiedasliberal,thenabout40percentofthe1.8millionbachelor’sdegreesconferredin2011–12wereintheliberalarts(Table318.20).

19governors:SeeScottJaschik,“FloridaGOPvs.SocialScience,”InsideHigherEd,Oct.12,2011

(Scottquote);KevinKiley,“A$10,000Platform,”InsideHigherEd,Nov.30,2012;andKiley,“AnotherLiberalArtsCritic,”InsideHigherEd,Jan.30,2013(Bennettquote).

19Itisn’tonlyRepublicans:ScottJaschik,“ApologyfromObama,”InsideHigherEd,Feb.19,2014.20theircomprehensivestudyofeducation:ClaudiaGoldinandLawrenceKatz,TheRacebetweenEducationandTechnology(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2010),28–29.

21Todayahighschoolstudent:Ibid.,254.22JawaharlalNehru:OnNehru’seconomicviews,seeShashiTharoor,Nehru:TheInventionofIndia(NewYork:Arcade,2003),159–193;andJawaharlalNehru,“TemplesoftheNewAge,”July8,1954,availableathttp://www.nehruinternationalconference2014.com/nehru_speech4.aspx.

30“TheOtherAmerica”:FatmaZakaria,“TheOtherAmerica,”TimesofIndia,Mar.28,1982.

2:ABriefHistoryofLiberalEducation

40Priortothechange:BruceKimball,OratorsandPhilosophers:AHistoryoftheIdeaofLiberalEducation(NewYork:TeachersCollegePress,1986),16–17.Kimball’sbookisadetailed,scholarlyhistoryofliberaleducationfromantiquitythroughthemodernera.AlsoseeWernerJaeger’sseminalworkonthedevelopmentofcultureandeducationinancientGreece:Paideia:TheIdealsofGreekCulture,trans.GilbertHighet,3vols.(Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress,1939–1944).

41“Ourconstitution”:Thucydides,HistoryofthePeloponnesianWar,trans.RexWarner(NewYork:Penguin,1954),2.37.

42“Learningwillspoil”:FrederickDouglass,TheLifeandTimesofFrederickDouglass(1881),inAutobiographies(NewYork:LibraryofAmerica,1994),527.AlsoquotedinMichaelRoth,BeyondtheUniversity:WhyLiberalEducationMatters(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2014),42.

42intellectualdisagreement:ThisistheargumentKimballmakesinhisbook—thatliberaleducationrepresentstwotraditions,thatoftheoratorsandthatofthephilosophers.

42firstgreatdivide:SeeWernerJaeger,“TheRhetoricofIsocratesandItsCulturalIdeal,”inPaideia,vol.3:46–70.

43oneoftheearliestwriters:Kimball,OratorsandPhilosophers,13.43“Foritisfromknowledge”:Cicero,OntheOrator,Books1–2,trans.E.W.SuttonandH.Rackham(LoebClassicalLibraryNo.348)(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1942),1.20.

44“finallyanddefinitivelyformalized”:PaulAbelson,TheSevenLiberalArts:AStudyinMedievalCulture(NewYork:Russell&Russell,1965),2.

44Charlemagnethenestablished:Kimball,OratorsandPhilosophers,51–52.45WhydidEuropeanlearning:FormoreontheIslamicinfluence,seeTobyE.Huff,TheRiseofEarlyModernScience:Islam,China,andtheWest,2nded.(Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,2003),47–89,149–179.AlsoseeMichaelH.Shank,TheScientificEnterpriseinAntiquityandtheMiddleAges(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1996),215–231.

46“nations”:Entryfor“nation,”inEncyclopediaBritannica,EncyclopediaBritannicaOnlineAcademicEdition(EncyclopediaBritannica,2014).

46By1300,westernEuropewashome:Kimball,OratorsandPhilosophers,75.47“revivalofartsandofletters”:PaulOskarKristeller,“Humanism,”Minerva16,no.4(Winter1978):586.

47“collegeasweknowit”:AndrewDelbanco,College:WhatItWas,Is,andShouldBe(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2012),36–37.Also,forasmartcollectionofthoughtsoneducation,writteninthe1950sbutsurprisinglycurrent,seeA.WhitneyGriswold,LiberalEducationandtheDemocraticIdeal:AndOtherEssays(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,1962).Foramoreadiscursivebutwidesetofreflections,seeMichaelOakeshott,TheVoiceofLiberalLearning(New

Haven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,1990).48publiclecture:Delbanco,College,61–62.48moresecular:Yale-NUSCollege,Yale-NUSCollege:ANewCommunityofLearning,aReportSubmittedbytheInauguralCurriculumCommitteeofYale-NUSCollege(NewHaven,CT,April2013),12–13,availableathttp://www.yale-nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Yale-NUS-College-Curriculum-Report.pdf.

49“laterallearning”:SeeDelbanco,College,53–56.49“Booklearningalone”:SamuelEliotMorison,FoundingofHarvardCollege(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1935),252,quotedinDelbanco,College,41–42.

50Manyofthefounders:Delbanco,College,39.50“Thesubject-matterofknowledge”:JohnHenryNewman,quotedinDelbanco,College,41.51Aftermuchdeliberation:CommitteeoftheCorporationandtheAcademicalFaculty,ReportsontheCourseofInstructioninYaleCollege(NewHaven,CT,1828).

51Yalereportexplained:Ibid.,14.51“Thetwogreatpoints”:Ibid.,7.52CharlesEliot:PhiloA.Hutcheson,“Eliot,CharlesWilliam,”inAmericanNationalBiographyOnline(OxfordUniversityPress,Feb.2000),availableathttp://www.anb.org/articles/09/09–00250.html.

53likemanyothercolleges:ForafullaccountofthistransitionperiodinAmericanhighereducation,seeLaurenceR.Veysey,TheEmergenceoftheAmericanUniversity(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1965).

53two-partessay:CharlesW.Eliot,“TheNewEducation,”AtlanticMonthly,Feb.–Mar.1869,thefirstpartavailableathttp://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1869/02/the-new-education/309049/.

54“spontaneousdiversityofchoice”:“CharlesWilliamEliot,”HarvardUniversity,availableathttp://www.harvard.edu/history/presidents/eliot(accessedAug.21,2014).

55“Trustthyself”:RalphWaldoEmerson,“Self-Reliance,”inEssays:FirstSeries(1841).551885speech:CharlesW.Eliot,“LibertyinEducation”(speechbeforetheNineteenthCenturyClubofNewYork,1885),inEducationalReform:EssaysandAddresses(NewYork:Century,1898),132–133,availableathttps://archive.org/details/educationalrefor00elioiala.

56Eliot’sviewswerenotshared:FormoreonthedifferingviewsofEliotandMcCosh,seeDelbanco,College,82–90.

57Againstthatbackdrop:LouisMenand,TheMarketplaceofIdeas:ReformandResistanceintheAmericanUniversity(NewYork:W.W.Norton,2010),35.Lessahistory,thisbookpresentsanimportantdiscussionoftheissuesthatmodernuniversitiesface.

57In1930:SeeMaryAnnDzurback,“Hutchins,Adler,andtheUniversityofChicago:ACriticalJuncture,”AmericanJournalofEducation99,no.1(1990):64–65;andStringfellowBarr,“ARetrospectiveonSt.John’s,”Change6(1974):35,63.

58Today,about150schools:Alistofcollegeprogramsthatusegreatbooks,compiledbyWilliamCasement,canbefoundatthefollowingAssociationforCoreTextsandCourses(ACTC)website:http://www.coretexts.org/college-great-books-programs/(accessedSept.15,2014).

581952essay:RobertM.Hutchins,“TheGreatConversation”(1952),inTheGreatConversation:AReader’sGuidetoGreatBooksoftheWesternWorld,2nded.(Chicago:EncyclopaediaBritannica,1990),46–73.

59MarthaNussbaum:MarthaC.Nussbaum,CultivatingHumanity:AClassicalDefenseofReforminLiberalEducation(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1997),33–34.

60“OncetheyhavegonethroughtheCore”:Delbanco,College,30.63Gradeshaverisensteadily:StuartRojstaczerandChristopherHealy,“WhereAIsOrdinary:TheEvolutionofAmericanCollegeandUniversityGrading,1940–2009,”TeachersCollegeRecord114,no.7(2012):1–23.

64portionofallgrades:BrittneyL.Moraski,“Report:GradeInflationPersists,”HarvardCrimson,May9,2007;MatthewQ.ClaridaandNicholasP.Fandos,“SubstantiatingFearsofGradeInflation,Dean

SaysMedianGradeatHarvardCollegeisA–,MostCommonGradeisA,”HarvardCrimson,Dec.4,2013.

65“amaterialuniverse”:AnthonyKronman,Education’sEnd:WhyOurUniversitiesandCollegesHaveGivenUpontheMeaningofLife(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2007),66.

65“TheTwoCultures”:C.P.Snow,TheTwoCulturesandtheScientificRevolution(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1961).

65“mutualincomprehension”:Ibid.,15–16.66“Agoodmanytimes”:Ibid.,16.66In2003,LawrenceSummers:LawrenceH.Summers,“RemarksofPresidentLawrenceH.SummersattheMassachusettsLifeSciencesSummit”(speechattheMassachusettsLifeSciencesSummit,Boston,MA,Sept.12,2003),availableathttp://www.harvard.edu/president/speeches/summers_2003/lifesci.php.

66FormerPrincetonpresidentShirleyTilghman:ShirleyM.Tilghman,“TheFutureofScienceEducationintheLiberalArtsCollege”(speechatPresidentsInstitute,CouncilofIndependentColleges,MarcoIsland,FL,Jan.5,2010),availableathttp://www.princeton.edu/president/tilghman/speeches/20100105/.

67In2011,YaleUniversity:Yale-NUSCollege,“Yale-NUSCollegeWelcomesInauguralClassExceeding150Students,”June6,2013,availableathttp://www.yale-nus.edu.sg/newsroom/yale-nus-college-welcomes-inaugural-class-exceeding-150-students/.

68InApril2013,acommitteeofthisnewenterprise:Yale-NUSCollege,Yale-NUSCollege.SincetheplanningstagesofYale-NUSin2010,someYaleprofessorsandlecturershaveraisedconcernsaboutalackofcivillibertiesinSingapore.See,e.g.,JimSleeper,“LiberalEducationinAuthoritarianPlaces,”NewYorkTimes,Aug.31,2013.

69greatestinnovation:Yale-NUSCollege,Yale-NUSCollege,45–47.71In1852,CardinalNewmanwrote:JohnHenryNewman,“KnowledgeItsOwnEnd,”inTheIdeaofaUniversity(London:Longmans,Green,1907),101–102,availableathttp://newmanreader.org/works/idea/discourse5.html.

71“Whatistheearthlyuse”:A.BartlettGiamatti,“TheEarthlyUseofaLiberalEducation,”inAFreeandOrderedSpace:TheRealWorldoftheUniversity(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1990),118–126.

3:LearningtoThink

74Bezosinsists:AdamLashinsky,“Amazon’sJeffBezos:TheUltimateDisrupter,”Fortune,Nov.16,2012.AlsoseeBradStone,TheEverythingStore:JeffBezosandtheDigitalAge(NewYork:Little,Brown,2013).

74“Fullsentencesareharder”:Lashinsky,“Amazon’sJeffBezos.”74“thefirmIled”:NormanAugustine,“OneCannotLivebyEquationsAlone:EducationforLifeandWorkintheTwenty-FirstCentury,”LiberalEducation99,no.2(Spring2013).

75“articulatecommunication”:Yale-NUSCollege,Yale-NUSCollege:ANewCommunityofLearning,aReportSubmittedbytheInauguralCurriculumCommitteeofYale-NUSCollege(NewHaven,CT,April2013),25–29,availableathttp://www.yale-nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Yale-NUS-College-Curriculum-Report.pdf.

77“Conversation”:A.WhitneyGriswold,“OnConversation,”inLiberalEducationandtheDemocraticIdeal:AndOtherEssays(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,1962),68–69.

77“outsideofthebook-knowledge”:AlfredNorthWhiteheadquotedinibid.79“thatwillhelpthemgetready”:DrewFaustquotedinLibbyA.Nelson,“GainfulEmploymentNegotiationsWrapUp—DOJDropsVoucherSuit—HarvardPresidentTalksQuality,Value,”Politico,

Nov.20,2013.79HowardGardner:HowardGardner,TheDisciplinedMind:BeyondFactsandStandardizedTests,theK–12EducationThatEveryChildDeserves(NewYork:Penguin,2000).

79“Thereisajoke”:Ibid.,102–103.79ThomasCech:ThomasR.Cech,“ScienceatLiberalArtsColleges:ABetterEducation?”Daedalus128,no.1(Winter1999):209–210.PartsofCech’sarticlearealsoquotedinShirleyM.Tilghman,“TheFutureofScienceEducationintheLiberalArtsCollege”(speechatPresidentsInstitute,CouncilofIndependentColleges,MarcoIsland,FL,Jan.5,2010).

80Gardnerargues:Gardner,DisciplinedMind,126.80pointofeducation:SeethecomparisonGardnerdrawsbetweenhisviewsoneducationandthoseofE.D.Hirsch,aneducatorandproponentof“culturalliteracy,”inDisciplinedMind,252–260.

81“itbordersonmalpractice”:Ibid.,260.82“itisinApple’sDNA”:SteveJobsquotedinTimCarmody,“WithoutJobsasCEO,WhoSpeaksfortheArtsatApple?”Wired,Aug.29,2011.

82HestudiedancientGreek:OnZuckerberg’sinterestintheclassics,seeJoseAntonioVargas,“TheFaceofFacebook,”NewYorker,Sept.20,2010.

83“asmuchpsychology”:MarkZuckerbergquotedinChaseLarson,“MarkZuckerbergSpeaksatBYU,CallsFacebook‘asmuchpsychologyandsociologyasitistechnology,’”DeseretNews,Mar.25,2011.

83“KnowledgeEconomyasweknowit”:BruceNussbaum,“GetCreative!”BloombergBusinessweek,July31,2005.

84“humantasks”:DavidH.Autor,“Polanyi’sParadoxandtheShapeofEmploymentGrowth”(paperdraftdatedAug.11,2014,preparedfortheFederalReserveBankofKansasCitysymposiumatJacksonHole,WY,Aug.21–23,2014),availableathttp://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/2014/093014.pdf.AlsoseeFareedZakaria,“HowtoRestoretheAmericanDream,”Time,Oct.21,2010.

85FastCompanyarticle:AnyaKamenetz,“WhyEducationwithoutCreativityIsn’tEnough,”FastCompany,Sept.14,2011.

85VinodKhosla:VinodKhosla(co-founder,SunMicrosystems),indiscussionwiththeauthor,Sept.9,2014.

862012industryreport:MichaelMasnickandMichaelHo,TheSkyIsRising:ADetailedLookattheStateoftheEntertainmentIndustry(Floor64,RedwoodCity,CA,Jan.2012),availableathttps://www.techdirt.com/skyisrising/.

87experienceofDr.IrwinBraverman:SeeChristineDiGrazia,“Yale’sLife-or-DeathCourseinArtCriticism,”NewYorkTimes,May19,2002;andHollyFinn,“HowtoEndtheAgeofInattention,”WallStreetJournal,June1,2012.

88In2013,theAmericanAssociationofCollegesandUniversities:ItTakesMoreThanaMajor:EmployerPrioritiesforCollegeLearningandStudentSuccess(Washington,DC:AssociationofAmericanCollegesandUniversitiesandHartResearchAssociates,2013).Thedefinitionofliberaleducationreadtosurveyparticipantswasasfollows:“Thisapproachtoacollegeeducationprovidesbothbroadknowledgeinavarietyofareasofstudyandknowledgeinaspecificmajororfieldofinterest.Italsohelpsstudentsdevelopasenseofsocialresponsibility,aswellasintellectualandpracticalskillsthatspanallareasofstudy,suchascommunication,analytical,andproblem-solvingskills,andademonstratedabilitytoapplyknowledgeandskillsinreal-worldsettings.”

88onerecentstudy:JoanBurrelli,AlanRapoport,andRolfLehming,“BaccalaureateOriginsofS&EDoctorateRecipients”(InfoBrief,NSF08–311,NationalScienceFoundation,DivisionofResourcesStatistics,Arlington,VA,July2008),availableathttp://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief/nsf08311/.AlsoseeThomasR.Cech,“ScienceatLiberalArtsColleges:ABetterEducation?”Daedalus128,no.1(Winter1999):195–216.

89“Sowhatdoesbusinessneed”:Augustine,“OneCannotLivebyEquationsAlone.”90“Getaliberalartsdegree”:EdgarM.Bronfman,“BusinessandtheLiberalArts,”InsideHigherEd,

Oct.17,2013.91first-eversurveyoftheskills:OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,OECDSkillsOutlook2013:FirstResultsfromtheSurveyofAdultSkills(OECDPublishing,2013).

91mostrecenteditionofthetest:OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,PISA2012Results:WhatStudentsKnownandCanDo—StudentPerformanceinMathematics,ReadingandScience(VolumeI,Revisededition,February2014)(OECDPublishing,2014).

91UnitedStateshasneverperformedespeciallywell:SeeElliottA.MedrichandJeanneE.Griffith,InternationalMathematicsandScienceAssessment:WhatHaveWeLearned?(Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofEducation,NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,Feb.1992),availableathttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs92/92011.pdf.

92Onaverage:DianeRavitch,ReignofError:TheHoaxofthePrivatizationMovementandtheDangertoAmerica’sPublicSchools(NewYork:Knopf,2013),65.RavitchmakesthesamepointabouthistoricallypoorAmericanperformanceoninternationalassessments,butsheusesitasevidencethattheU.S.educationsystemdoesnotrequirethekindofreformsnowproposedbymany,includingtheGeorgeW.BushandObamaadministrations.Iwouldtendtodisagreewiththatconclusion.

92mostrecentassessmentintheseries:U.S.DepartmentofEducation,NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,TrendsinInternationalMathematicsandScience(TIMSS),availableathttp://nces.ed.gov/timss/(accessedAug.13,2014).

92UnitedStatesspendsmorepercapita:OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,EducationataGlance2014:OECDIndicators(OECDPublishing,2014),204.

93“Webothhavemeritocracies”:TharmanShanmugaratnamquotedinFareedZakaria,“WeAllHaveaLottoLearn,”Newsweek,Jan.8,2006.ThisquotealsoappearedinmybookThePost-AmericanWorld(NewYork:W.W.Norton,2008).

93It’snotjustSingapore:FormoreonthegrowinginterestintheliberalartsinAsia,includingtheexamplesinthisparagraph,seeYale-NUSCollege,Yale-NUSCollege,14–22.

95Israelactuallyranksfirst:OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,EntrepreneurshipataGlance(OECDPublishing,2014),91.AlsoseetheextremelyinterestingbookbyDanSenorandSaulSinger,Start-upNation:TheStoryofIsrael’sEconomicMiracle(NewYork:Twelve,2009).

952014Bloombergmeasureoftechnologydensity:“MostInnovativeintheWorld2014:Economies,”Bloomberg,athttp://www.bloomberg.com/visual-data/best-and-worst/most-innovative-in-the-world-2014-economies(accessedJuly28,2014).

95SwedenandIsraelperformed:OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,PISA2012Results.

96PISAtestsdon’tsimplyevaluatestudents’skills:OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,PISA2012Results:ReadytoLearn:Students’Engagement,DriveandSelf-Beliefs(VolumeIII)(OECDPublishing,2013).PISAmeasuredmathematicsself-conceptbyaskingstudentswhethertheyagreedordisagreedwithfivestatements,including“Ilearnmathematicsquickly”and“Iamjustnotgoodatmathematics.”TableIII.4.2a(p.304)providesacountry-by-countrybreakdownofthepercentageofstudentsindicatingself-conceptforeachofthefivequestions.Theoverallrankingherewascalculatedbyaveragingthefiveseparaterankingsofcountriesbypercentage.

96“Thiscountry”:WilliamBennett,TheDe-ValuingofAmerica:TheFightforOurCultureandOurChildren(NewYork:SummitBooks,1992),42–43.

97theirbookTheTriplePackage:AmyChuaandJedRubenfeld,TheTriplePackage:HowThreeUnlikelyTraitsExplaintheRiseandFallofCulturalGroupsinAmerica(NewYork:Penguin,2014).

97Someexpertsseenocorrelation:See,e.g.,KeithBaker,“AreInternationalTestsWorthAnything?”PhiDeltaKappan89,no.2(Oct.2007):101–104.

97whileotherspointtodata:See,e.g.,EricA.HanushekandLudgerWoessmann,TheHighCostofLowEducationalPerformance:TheLong-RunImpactofImprovingPISAOutcomes(OECDPublishing,2010).

98Scholars:HeinerRindermannandJamesThompson,“CognitiveCapitalism:TheEffectofCognitiveAbilityonWealth,asMediatedthroughScientificAchievementandEconomicFreedom,”PsychologicalScience22,no.6(June2011):754–763.

98America’stop1percentintellectually:JonathanWai,“OfBrainiacsandBillionaires,”PsychologyToday,July3,2012.

99“Overalongperiodoftime”:ThomasPiketty,CapitalintheTwenty-FirstCentury(Cambridge,MA:BelknapPress,2014),22.

100Onaverage,studentsinShanghai:BillChappell,“U.S.StudentsSlideinGlobalRankingonMath,Reading,Science,”NationalPublicRadio,Dec.3,2013,availableathttp://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwoway/2013/12/03/248329823/u-s-high-school-students-slide-in-math-reading-science.

100U.S.SecretaryofEducationArneDuncan:HouseEducationandLaborCommittee,TheObamaAdministration’sEducationAgenda:HearingbeforetheCommitteeonEducationandLabor,111thCong.(May20,2009)(statementofArneDuncan,SecretaryofEducationoftheUnitedStates),24,alsoavailableathttp://votesmart.org/public-statement/427845/hearing-of-house-education-and-labor-committee-the-obama-administrations-education-agenda#.VCQ5UWRdVy8.

100IfMalcolmGladwellisright:MalcolmGladwell,Outliers:TheStoryofSuccess(NewYork:Little,Brown,2008).

101JackMa:C.Custer,“JackMaExplainsWhyChina’sEducationSystemFailstoProduceInnovators,”TechinAsia,Dec.9,2014,availableathttps://www.techinasia.com/jack-ma-explains-chinas-education-system-fails-produce-innovators/.

101academicyearismuchshorter:Thishasbeenthecasefordecades.ANationatRisk:TheImperativeforEducationalReform(Washington,DC:NationalCommissiononExcellenceinEducation,1983)—aninfluentialreportonthestateofAmericaneducationreleasedunderPresidentRonaldReagan—recommendedthatschooldistrictsandstatelegislatures“stronglyconsider”increasingthelengthoftheschoolyeartobetween200and220days,inlinewithmanyotherindustrializednations.Thereissomedispute,however,overhowtheAmericanschoolyearcompareswithschoolyearsinothercountries.See,e.g.,JimHullandMandyNewport,“TimeinSchool:HowDoestheU.S.Compare?”CenterforPublicEducation,Dec.2011,availableathttp://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/Main-Menu/Organizing-a-school/Time-in-school-How-does-the-US-compare.

1022010researchpaper:PhilipS.BabcockandMindyMarks,“TheFallingTimeCostofCollege:EvidencefromHalfaCenturyofTimeUseData”(NationalBureauofEconomicResearchWorkingPaperNo.15954,Apr.2010),availableathttp://www.nber.org/papers/w15954.

102importantnewstudy:RichardArumandJosipaRoksa,AcademicallyAdrift:LimitedLearningonCollegeCampuses(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2010).

102“Largenumbersoffour-yearcollegestudents”:“FrequentlyAskedQuestionsaboutAcademicallyAdrift,”LearninginHigherEd,SocialScienceResearchCouncil,athttp://highered.ssrc.org/publications/academically-adrift/frequently-asked-questions/(accessedSept.1,2014).

103MalcolmGladwell:MalcolmGladwell,interviewbyFareedZakaria,FareedZakariaGPS,CNN,July21,2013.

105Inlate1980s,atthepeakofthebelief:JamesFallows,MoreLikeUs:MakingAmericaGreatAgain(Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1989).

4:TheNaturalAristocracy

107“ourfoundingYuppie”:DavidBrooks,“OurFoundingYuppie,”WeeklyStandard,Oct.23,2000.

107“wouldhavefeltrightathome”:WalterIsaacson,BenjaminFranklin:AnAmericanLife(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,2003),3.

107In1749,hepublishedapamphlet:BenjaminFranklin,ProposalsRelatingtotheEducationofYouthinPennsylvania(Philadelphia,1749),inThePapersofBenjaminFranklin,AmericanPhilosophicalSocietyandYaleUniversity,athttp://franklinpapers.org/franklin//(accessedSept.17,2014).FormoreonFranklin’sideasabouteducation,seeLorraineSmithPangleandThomasL.Pangle,TheLearningofLiberty:TheEducationalIdeasoftheAmericanFounders(Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,1993),75–90.

109Franklinstruggled:Isaacson,BenjaminFranklin,147.Foramoredetailedlookatthisstruggle,seeachapterinthelatehistorianJ.A.LeoLemay’scomprehensiveyetunfinishedbiographyTheLifeofBenjaminFranklin,vol.3:Soldier,Scientist,andPolitician,1748–1757(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2008),176–216.

109Junto:Isaacson,BenjaminFranklin,55–60.110“Hisworkonelectricity”:DudleyHerschbachquotedinibid.,129.110In1778,Jeffersonpresented:CommitteeoftheVirginiaAssembly,“ABillfortheMoreGeneral

DiffusionofKnowledge,”June18,1779,inJeffersonPapers,FoundersOnline,NationalArchives,http://founders.archives.gov/about/Jefferson.FormoreonJefferson’sideasabouteducation,seePangleandPangle,LearningofLiberty,106–124.

111“Thiswouldcreate”:MichaelRoth,BeyondtheUniversity:WhyLiberalEducationMatters(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2014),21–22.

111“sothoroughlythework”:JonMeacham,ThomasJefferson:TheArtofPower(NewYork:RandomHouse,2012),468.

112UniversityofVirginiawasunique:“Jefferson’sVisionoftheAcademicalVillage,”UniversityofVirginia,availableathttp://www.virginia.edu/academicalvillage/vision.html(accessedSept.24,2014).

112“naturalaristocracy”:ThomasJeffersonquotedinRoth,BeyondtheUniversity,25–26.112“Thebestgeniuses”:ThomasJeffersonquotedinibid.113“Thewholepeoplemusttake”:JohnAdamsquotedinibid.,25.FormoreonAdams’sviewabout

education,seePangleandPangle,LearningofLiberty,91–105.114Whatwouldtheymakeofacountry:ThomasB.Edsall,“TheReproductionofPrivilege,”NewYork

Times,Mar.12,2012.114“Theeducationsystem”:AnthonyCarnevalequotedinibid.115Aslateasthe1970s,Berkeley’sannualtuition:LarryAbramson,“WhyIsCollegeSoExpensive?”All

ThingsConsidered,NationalPublicRadio,Oct.19,2011,availableathttp://www.npr.org/2011/10/19/141505658/why-is-college-so-expensive.

115Forthe2014–15academicyear:Berkeley’scostofattendancecanbefoundonlineathttp://admissions.berkeley.edu/costofattendance.

116“partypathway”:ElizabethA.ArmstrongandLauraT.Hamilton,PayingfortheParty:HowCollegeMaintainsInequality(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2013).

117“Ihavetoturndown”:AdmissionsofficerquotedinFareedZakaria,“TheThin-EnvelopeCrisis,”Time,Apr.15,2013.

117WilliamBowen:WilliamBowenandSarahLevin,ReclaimingtheGame:CollegeSportsandEducationalValues(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2003).TheoriginalbookonthesamesubjectisJamesL.ShulmanandWilliamBowen,TheGameofLife:CollegeSportsandEducationalValues(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2001).ReclaimingtheGamehasmorecurrentstatisticsthatoverwhelminglyproveBowen’sthesis.

1172012essayintheAmericanConservative:RonUnz,“TheMythofAmericanMeritocracy,”AmericanConservative,Dec.2012.

118incomparison:Ibid.118TheChosen:JeromeKarabel,TheChosen:TheHiddenHistoryofAdmissionandExclusionat

Harvard,Yale,andPrinceton(Boston:HoughtonMifflin,2005).

119averagecollegetuition:MichelleJamriskoandIlanKolet,“CollegeTuitionCostsSoar:ChartoftheDay,”Bloomberg,Aug.18,2014.

120Whyhasthecostofcollegerisensoquickly?:WilliamBaumolandWilliamBowenfirstintroducedtheircostdiseasetheoryinPerformingArts,TheEconomicDilemma:AStudyofProblemsCommontoTheater,Opera,Music,andDance(NewYork:TwentiethCenturyFund,1966).

121“whileproductivitygains”:RobertH.Frank,“ThePrestigeChaseIsRaisingCollegeCosts,”NewYorkTimes,Mar.10,2012,quotedinWilliamBowen,HigherEducationintheDigitalAge(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2013),4.

121Bowenpointsout:ForBowen’sstrongaccountofcostsandproductivityinhighereducation,firstdeliveredasaTannerLectureonHumanValuesatStanfordUniversityin2012,seeHigherEducationintheDigitalAge,1–27.

123AcademicallyAdrift:RichardArumandJosipaRoksa,AcademicallyAdrift:LimitedLearningonCollegeCampuses(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2010).

124Byearly2014,thetwomainplatforms:FionaM.HollandsandDevayaniTirthali,“MOOCs:ExpectationsandReality”(CenterforBenefit-CostStudiesofEducation,TeachersCollege,ColumbiaUniversity,May2014),57.

1262013survey:DougLedermanandScottJaschik,“SurveyofFacultyAttitudesonTechnology,”InsideHigherEd,Aug.27,2013.

127Tworecentstudies:UniversityofPennsylvaniaGraduateSchoolofEducation,“PennGSEStudyShowsMOOCsHaveRelativelyFewActiveUsers,withOnlyaFewPersistingtoCourseEnd,”Dec.5,2013,availableathttp://www.gse.upenn.edu/pressroom/press-releases/2013/12/penn-gse-study-shows-moocs-have-relatively-few-active-users-only-few-persisti;andAndrewDeanHo,JustinReich,SergiyO.Nesterko,DanielThomasSeaton,TommyMullaney,JimWaldo,andIsaacChuang,“HarvardXandMITx:TheFirstYearofOpenOnlineCourses,Fall2012–Summer2013”(HarvardXandMITxWorkingPaperNo.1,Jan.21,2014),2,availableathttp://papers.ssrn.com/s013/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2381263.

127mediausedtheselowcompletionrates:See,e.g.,TamarLewin,“AfterSetbacks,OnlineCoursesAreRethought,”NewYorkTimes,Dec.10,2013.

127Courserareports:RichardLevin(CEO,Coursera),indiscussionwiththeauthor,Aug.30,2014.128In2012and2013,approximately43,000students:Hoetal.,“HarvardXandMITx,”2.128RobertShiller:Levin,discussionwithauthor.129MinervaProject:FormoreontheMinervaProject,seeGraemeWood,“TheFutureofCollege?”

Atlantic,Aug.13,2014.130TheOneWorldSchoolhouse:SalmanKhan,TheOneWorldSchoolhouse:EducationReimagined

(NewYork:Twelve,2012).132StamenkaUvalić-Trumbić:StamenkaUvalić-Trumbić,RemarksattheClosingSessionofthe

UNESCOGlobalForumonRankingsandAccountabilityinHigherEducation(Paris,France,May17,2011),availableathttp://www.col.org/resources/speeches/2011presentation/Pages/2011–05–16.aspx.

132“Inevitably,thegreatestimpactofMOOCs”:Levin,discussionwithauthor.132Already,72percent:Hoetal.,“HarvardXandMITx,”25.133Thevastmajority:Ibid.;andGayleChristensen,AndrewSteinmetz,BrandonAlcorn,AmyBennett,

DeirdreWoods,andEzekielJ.Emanuel,“TheMOOCPhenomenon:WhoTakesMassiveOpenOnlineCoursesandWhy?”(workingpaper,UniversityofPennsylvania,Nov.6,2013),availableathttp://papers.ssrn.com/s013/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2350964.

133studypublishedinNovember2013:Christensenetal.,“MOOCPhenomenon,”11.The34,779surveyrespondentswereallowedtochooseallreasonsforenrollingthatappliedamongfouroptions.Theresultswereasfollows:“Curiosity,justforfun”(50.05percent),“Gainspecificskillstodomyjobbetter”(43.9percent),“Gainspecificskillstogetanewjob”(17.0percent),and“Gainknowledgetogetmydegree”(13.2percent).

5:KnowledgeandPower

135Prometheusbroughtfire:IngriD’AulaireandEdgarD’Aulaire,D’Aulaires’BookofGreekMyths(NewYork:DelacortePress,1992).

136Aeschylus’sversion:Aeschylus,PrometheusBound,ed.AlanWeissman,trans.GeorgeThomson(NewYork:DoverThrift,1995).

136SodidAdamandEve:Genesis2–3,KingJamesVersion.137“ignoranceisbliss”:ThomasGray,“OdeonaDistantProspectofEtonCollege”(1747),inThomas

GrayArchive,availableathttp://www.thomasgray.org/cgi-bin/display.cgi?text=odec#panel_poem(accessedSept.15,2014).

138“drawntothepursuitofknowledge”:CiceroquotedinJohnHenryNewman,“KnowledgeItsOwnEnd,”inTheIdeaofaUniversity(London:Longmans,Green,1907),104,availableathttp://newmanreader.org/works/idea/discourse5.html.

138“Otherspecies”:RichardDawkins,“ApeswithBigBrains:RichardDawkinsonWhatMakesUsHuman,”NewStatesman,Jan.6,2014.

139“asingularcreature”:JacobBronowski,TheAscentofMan(London:BBCBooks,2011),19.140“Science”:BertrandRussellwroteoftenaboutscienceandphilosophy,mostextensivelyinReligion

andScience(Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress,1997).Thequotesherecomefroma1959interviewhedidwiththeBritishjournalistWoodrowWyatt,availableathttps://archive.org/details/BertrandRussellDiscussesPhilosophy.TheinterviewwaspartofaserieswithWyatt,laterpublishedinbookformasBertrandRussellSpeaksHisMind(1960).

141Aristotle’sexplanation:SeeAristotle,GenerationofAnimals,trans.A.L.Peck(LoebClassicalLibraryNo.366)(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1942),4.1.766a.

141CharlesII:CharlesPanati,Panati’sExtraordinaryEndingsofPracticallyEverythingandEverybody(NewYork:Harper&Row,1989),265–267;and“SourceAnalysis—DeathofCharlesIIBasedonScarburgh’sDescription,”GSCEBitesize,BBCNews,availableathttp://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/shp/middleages/earlymodernsurgeryrev5.shtml(accessedSept.15,2014).

142Lifeexpectancy:Forhistoricallifeexpectancy,seeS.RyanJohansson,“Medics,MonarchsandMortality,1600–1800:OriginsoftheKnowledge-DrivenHealthTransitioninEurope”(DiscussionPapersinEconomicandSocialHistory,No.85,UniversityofOxford,Oct.2010).Forcurrentlifeexpectancy,seeWorldDevelopmentIndicators,TheWorldBank,availableathttp://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators.

142UnitedNationsestimated:UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme,HumanDevelopmentReport1997(Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress,1997),2.

142averageChinesepersontoday:WorldDevelopmentIndicators,TheWorldBank.Chineselifeexpectancyatbirthrosefrom45yearsin1962to75in2012.ChineseGDPpercapita(in2005U.S.dollars)increasedfrom$88.24in1963to$3,583.38in2013.Themultipleof40dependsonwhetheryouuseinflation-adjustedorcurrentdollars,aswellasmarket-exchangeorpurchasing-powerparity.

143In1960,nearlyoneinfivechildren:WorldDevelopmentIndicators,TheWorldBank.Theunder-fivemortalityrateper1,000livebirthsgloballydeclinedfrom182.7in1960to45.6in2013.

143Itisquitepossible:See,e.g.,JeffreyD.Sachs,“TheEndofPoverty,Soon,”NewYorkTimes,Sept.24,2013.

143MattRidley:MattRidley,TheRationalOptimist:HowProsperityEvolves(NewYork:HarperCollins,2011).

144“humanitarianrevolution”:StevenPinker,TheBetterAngelsofOurNature:WhyViolenceHasDeclined(NewYork:VikingBooks,2011),129–188.

144“rightsrevolutions”:Ibid.,378–481.144Somehumanistsbalk:See,e.g.,DonaldKagan,“AveatqueYale,”NewCriterion,June2013.

146“thesubjectsofourstudythink”:HerbertSimonquotedinFareedZakaria,“BloodLustinAcademia,”NewRepublic,July27,1987,16–18.

148NicholasKristofhaspointed:NicholasKristof,“Don’tDismisstheHumanities,”NewYorkTimes,Aug.13,2014.

6:InDefenseofToday’sYouth

150makealife:Thephrase“MakingaLiving,MakingaLife”comesfromawonderfulcommencementaddressdeliveredbyDanielRosein1986attheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology’sCenterforRealEstateDevelopment.ItisnowincludedinabookofessaysbyRose:MakingaLiving,MakingaLife(Essex,NY:HalfMoonPress,2014).

151“TheMeMeMeGeneration”:JoelStein,“Millennials:TheMeMeMeGeneration,”Time,May20,2013.

151“Crewpracticeatdawn”:DavidBrooks,“TheOrganizationKid,”Atlantic,April2001.152“Atthetopofthemeritocraticladder”:Ibid.152In2014,theessayist:WilliamDeresiewicz,ExcellentSheep:TheMiseducationoftheAmericanElite

andtheWaytoaMeaningfulLife(NewYork:FreePress,2014).153“entitledlittleshit[s]”:Ibid.,221.153notionthatyoungpeople:SeeMeyerReinhold,“TheGenerationGapinAntiquity,”andBarry

Baldwin,“YoungandOldinImperialRome,”inStephenBerman,ed.,TheConflictofGenerationsinAncientGreeceandRome(Amsterdam:JohnBenjamins,1976),15–54,221–234.

154ChristopherLasch:ChristopherLasch,TheCultureofNarcissism:AmericanLifeinanAgeofDiminishingExpectations(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1979).

154his1987book:AllanBloom,TheClosingoftheAmericanMind:HowHigherEducationHasFailedDemocracyandImpoverishedtheSoulsofToday’sStudents(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1987).

154AnthonyKronman:SeeAnthonyKronman,Education’sEnd:WhyOurUniversitiesandCollegesHaveGivenUpontheMeaningofLife(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2007).

157ProfessorStevenPinker:SeeStevenPinker’sresponsetoDeresiewicz,in“TheTroublewithHarvard:TheIvyLeagueIsBrokenandOnlyStandardizedTestsCanFixIt,”NewRepublic,Sept.4,2014.

157UCLA’sHigherEducationResearchInstitute:SeeTheAmericanFreshman:NationalNorms,aseriesofannualreportspresentingdataoncollegefreshmen,publishedbytheHigherEducationResearchInstituteattheUniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles.Reportsdatingtothe1960sareavailableathttp://www.heri.ucla.edu/tfsPublications.php.

157Overthelastfourdecades:J.H.Pryor,S.Hurtado,V.B.Saenz,J.L.Santos,andW.S.Korn,TheAmericanFreshman:FortyYearTrends,1966–2006(LosAngeles:HigherEducationResearchInstitute,UCLA,April2007),31–34.

158numberswhovolunteer:SeethePeaceCorpspressrelease“ThePeaceCorpsAnnouncesRecord-BreakingApplicationNumbersin2014,”Oct.8,2014;andtheCorporationforNationalandCommunityServicepressrelease“AmeriCorpsWeekMarkedfromCoasttoCoast,”Mar.23,2012.

158TeachforAmerica:SeetheTeachforAmericapressrelease“TeachforAmericaAnnouncesRecordNumberofTeachersfor2008,”May14,2008.Inapresskit,TeachforAmericareportsthattheorganizationreceivedoverfiftythousandapplicationsforthe2014teachingcorps.

158coverstoryinTimemagazine:Stein,“Millennials.”159“Theincidenceofnarcissisticpersonalitydisorder”:Ibid.159ElspethReeve:ElspethReeve,“EveryEveryEveryGenerationHasBeentheMeMeMeGeneration,”

Wire,May9,2013,availableathttp://www.thewire.com/national/2013/05/me-generation-time/65054/.159quotefromthe2010study:BrentW.Roberts,GrantEdmonds,andEmilyGrijalva,“ItIs

DevelopmentalMe,NotGenerationMe,”PerspectivesonPsychologicalScience5,no.1(Jan.2010):97–102.

1592014Nielsenreport:Millennials:BreakingtheMyths(NewYork:Nielsen,2014).SomeofthedataintheNielsenreportcomefromthe2012editionoftheAchieveandCaseFoundationstudycitedbelow.

160studyofthegroupsponsoredbytheCaseFoundation:InspiringtheNextGenerationWorkforce:The2014MillennialImpactReport(AchieveandtheCaseFoundation,2014),availableathttp://cdn.trustedpartner.com/docs/library/AchieveMCON2013/MIR_2014.pdf.

160Ina“TEDTalk”:ScottHess,“Millennials:WhoTheyAreandWhyWeHateThem”(TEDxSF,June2011),availableathttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P-enHH-r_FM.

160InatalkatPrinceton:DavidBrooks,“PoliticsandtheOrganizationKid”(StaffordLittleLecturesatPrince-tonUniversity,Princeton,NJ,Nov.26,2012),avail-ableathttps://mediacentral.princeton.edu/media/1_b7in7m0e.

161billionaire-founderofLinkedIn:ReidHoffman,TheStart-upofYou:AdapttotheFuture,InvestinYourself,andTransformYourCareer(NewYork:CrownBusiness,2012).

161Somethingstheyoungdon’tdo:SeeAbbyKiesa,AlexanderP.Orlowski,PeterLevine,DeborahBoth,EmilyHobanKirby,MarkHugoLopez,andKarloBarriosMarcelo,MillennialsTalkPolitics:AStudyofCollegeStudentPoliticalEngagement(Medford,MA:CenterforInformationandResearchonCivicLearningandEngagement,Nov.2007).

162moststrikingresultfromtheHERIsurvey:Pryoretal.,AmericanFreshman:FortyYearTrends,33;andK.Eagan,J.B.Lozano,S.Hurtado,andM.H.Case,TheAmericanFreshman:NationalNormsFall2013(LosAngeles:HigherEducationResearchInstitute,UCLA,2013),40.

163In1983,ABCairedatelevisionmovie:TheDayAfter,directedbyNicholasMeyer(NewYork:ABC,1983).

166Hisspeechesandblogposts:SeepostsbyBillGatesonhttp://www.gatesnotes.com.167“morallyinarticulate”:See,e.g.,Brooks,“PoliticsandtheOrganizationKid.”AlsoseeDavidBrooks,

“IfItFeelsRight...,”NewYorkTimes,Sept.12,2011.168HERIsurveydata:Forthemostrecentfigures,seeEaganetal.,AmericanFreshman,40.169“Imuststudypoliticsandwar”:LetterfromJohnAdamstoAbigailAdams,May12,1780,inAdams

FamilyPapers:AnElectronicArchive,MassachusettsHistoricalSociety,availableathttp://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/.

Acknowledgments

MyfirstdebtistothepresidentandtrusteesofSarahLawrenceCollege,whoaskedmetodeliverthecommencementaddresstotheClassof2014.Thinkingaboutthespecialqualitiesofthatwonderfulschool,nestledinthesuburbsofManhattan,Idecidedtopresentabriefdefenseofaliberaleducation.Iwassurprisedbytheresponse,whichwentfarbeyondSarahLawrence,evenbeyondgraduatesofliberalartsprograms.Irealizedthatmanypeoplewerethinkingaboutthesesameissuesandperhapsitwouldbeusefultodevelopmyideasmorefullyandinprint.So,Idecidedtowritethisbook.

That’swhereDrakeMcFeely,myeditoratW.W.Norton,camein.Hewasinstantlyenthusiasticabouttheideaanddecidedtomoveproductionalongatabriskpace,maintaininghisgentlemanlymannerevenwhilehewascrackingthewhip(ablyassistedinbothregardsbyJeffShreve).ThisismythirdbookwithDrake,andworkingwithhimhasbeenoneofthegreatprofessionalpleasuresofmylife.TinaBennett,mywonderfulagent,handledeveryaspectofthebookwithherusualmixtureoftalent,dedication,andcharm.

GavanGideon,freshoutofYaleCollege,helpedmewiththeresearchonthisbook.GavanleapedintothisprojectafterIhadbegunwriting,andhewasabletogetuptospeedsofastitstartledme.Inadditiontobeinganexcellentresearcher,Gavanisalucidwriterandskillededitorandhelpedmeshapethefinalmanuscript.JohnCookson,whousedtoworkwithmeatCNN,hasbeenaninvaluablehelpaswell,alwaysexpertatfindingnewsourcesofdataandoftendiscoveringaninterestingbookoressaythatImighthavemissed.JohnisagraduateoftheUniversityofPennsylvaniaandColumbiaUniversity.Ifthesearetheproductsofaliberaleducationnowadays,wehavenothingtoworryabout.

Workingonaprojectlikethiswhilehavingadayjobmeansrelyingonothersformuchhelp.JessicadelPilarorganizedmylifewithanefficiencyandintelligencethatIcouldnevermatchandagracethatIdon’tpossess.Aftermanyyearsofhelpingme,she’smovedontobiggerandbetterthingsatWashington

UniversityinSt.Louis.MelanieGalvinhassettledinasmyassistantandisalreadymakingherselfinvaluable.Televisiontakesmoreworkthanmostpeoplerealize,andasthepersoninfrontofthecamera,Igettoomuchcredit.TheoneswhodeservemuchmorearetheteamatCNNthatproducesmyshow,FareedZakariaGPS:TomGoldstone,RaviAgrawal,SujataThomas,MaiteAmorebieta,DanLogan,JessicaGutteridge,NicoleBoucher,andDanaSherne.(RaviandSujatahavealsomovedaheadintheircareers.)Inaddition,abigthankyoutoJeffZuckerforallhisguidanceandhelp.FredHiatt,whorunstheWashingtonPost’ssuperbeditorialpages,hasalwaysbeenasourceofencouragementandsupport,eventhoughheisoftenexasperatedbymyviewsonforeignpolicy.DavidBradleyattheAtlantichasbeenafriend,philosopher,andguide.

Providinglifesupportismywife,Paula,whohasalwaysencouragedmetoworkonthethingsthatIlove.Shemanagestokeepourfamilyrunningandthrivingandisnowturningtoherownambitionsandconsiderabletalentsasawriter(andagraduateofSarahLawrence’sMFAprogram,whichiswhyIwasinvitedtospeakatthecollege).IowehermorethanIcanexpress.

Emersononcewrote,“Itisoneoftheblessingsofoldfriendsthatyoucanaffordtobestupidwiththem.”Ihaveaffordedmyselfthatpleasuremanytimes.Iturnedfiftyrecentlyand,lookingback,realizedthatwhathasgivenmethegreatestjoyinlifehasbeenmyfamilyandfriendswhohavesurroundedmewithcompanionshipandaffection.Theyoungestmembersinthatgrouparemythreechildren,towhomthisbookisdedicated.Mywifesaysthatbeforeyouhavechildren,youimaginethatyouwantthemtogrowupandbecomepresidentsandprimeministers.Oncetheyareinfrontofyou,allyouwishforisthattheybehappyandfulfilled—andlivecloseby!That’smyhopeandprayer.

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