joining of materials and structures - gbv

Joining of Materialsand Structures

From Pragmatic Process to

Enabling Technology

Robert W. Messier, Jr.

ELSFVTFR• i m D o ^ AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORDbUI I bKWUKt H

HEINEMANN PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO

Contents

Preface xxi

I JOINING PROCESSES & TECHNOLOGIES 1

1 Introduction to Joining: A Process and a Technology 3

1.1 Joining Defined 31.2 Reasons for Joining Materials and Structures 51.3 Challenges for Joining Materials 131.4 Challenges for Joining Structures 151.5 How Joining is Changing or Must Change 151.6 Joining Options 22

1.6.1 Fundamental Forces Involved in Joining 221.6.2 Mechanical Fastening and Integral Attachment:

Using Mechanical Forces 221.6.3 Adhesive Bonding: Using Chemical Forces 271.6.4 Welding: Using Physical Forces 271.6.5 Brazing: A Subclassification of Welding 291.6.6 Soldering: A Subset of Brazing 301.6.7 Variant and Hybrid Joining Processes 32

1.7 Some Key Concepts Relating to Joints 321.7.1 Joint Loading or Stress State 321.7.2 Joint Load-Carrying Capacity Versus Joint Efficiency 34

Summary 40Questions and Problems 41Cited References 43Bibliography 43

2 Mechanical Joining 45

2.1 Introduction 452.2 Mechanical Joining as an Assembly Process 46

2.2.1 General Description of Fastening Versus Integral Attachment 462.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechanical Joining 46

2.3 Sources and Types of Joint Loading 50

vi Contents

2.4 Shear-Loaded Fastened Joints 542.4.1 Types of Fastened Shear-Loaded Joints 542.4.2 Fastener Spacing and Edge Distances 582.4.3 Effects of Fastener Holes on Joint Net Area 592.4.4 Allowable-Stress Design Procedure 612.4.5 Axial Shear Versus Eccentric Shear 71

2.5 Tension-Loaded Fastened Joints 752.5.1 Principle of Joint Operation 752.5.2 The Purpose of Preload 762.5.3 Procedure for Determining Appropriate (Target) Preload 782.5.4 Bolt Torque 802.5.5 Achieving a Desired (Target) Preload in Bolts 822.5.6 Measuring Residual Preload 832.5.7 Loss of Preload in Service 84

2.6 Fatigue Loading of Fastened Joints 852.6.1 Sources and Signs of Fatigue Loading 852.6.2 Reducing the Tendency for Fatigue Failure 87

2.7 Other Factors Affecting Fasteners and Fastened Joints 892.7.1 Bending Loading 892.7.2 Vibration Loading 912.7.3 Corrosion and Environmental Degradation 91

2.8 Integrally Attached Joints 932.8.1 Integrally Attached Joints Defined 932.8.2 Integral Attachment Joint and Attachment Loading 932.8.3 Classification of Integral Attachments by Form and for

Design Context 952.8.4 Analysis of Snap-Fit Integral Attachment Features 97


Mechanical Fasteners, Integral Attachments, andOther Mechanical Joining Methods 105

3.1 Introduction 1053.2 Fasteners Versus Integral Attachments or Interlocks 109

3.2.1 The Role of Interlocking in Mechanical Joining 1093.2.2 Mechanical Fasteners 1103.2.3 Integral Attachments or Interlocks 114

3.3 Threaded Fasteners 1183.3.1 General Description of Threaded Fasteners 1183.3.2 Threads 1193.3.3 Bolts 122

Contents vii

3.3.4 Screws 1253.3.5 Nuts and Lock Nuts 1283.3.6 Tapping or Self-Tapping Screws 1313.3.7 Materials and Standards for Major Types of Threaded

Fasteners 1313.3.8 Integral Fasteners and Self-Clinching Fasteners 132

3.4 Unthreaded Fasteners 1343.4.1 General Description of Unthreaded Fasteners 1343.4.2 Upsetting Rivets 1353.4.3 Blind Rivets 1413.4.4 Self-Setting or Self-Upsetting Fasteners 1453.4.5 Pins, Pegs, and Nails 1473.4.6 Eyelets and Grommets 1503.4.7 Retaining Rings and Clips 1523.4.8 Keys and Keyways 1553.4.9 Washers and Lock-Washers 156

3.5 Integral Mechanical Attachments 1583.5.1 General Description of Integral Mechanical Attachments 1583.5.2 A Suggested Classification Scheme for Integral Mechanical

Attachments 1593.5.3 Rigid Integral Mechanical Interlocks 1613.5.4 Elastic (Snap-Fit) Integral Mechanical Interlocks 1633.5.5 Plastic Integral Mechanical Interlocks: Part Alteration

to Accomplish Joining 1653.6 Other Mechanical Joining Methods 167

3.6.1 General Description of Other Methods for JoiningParts Mechanically 167

3.6.2 Stapling and Stitching or Sewing 1673.6.3 Laces, Lashings, Knots, and Wraps 1703.6.4 Couplings and Clutches 1713.6.5 Magnetic Connections and Fasteners 171


4 Adhesive Bonding and Cementing 177

4.1 Introduction 1774.2 Adhesive Bonding as a Joining Process 179

4.2.1 General Description of Adhesive Bonding 1794.2.2 Cementing and Mortaring as an Adhesive Joining Process 1804.2.3 The Functions of Adhesives 1824.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Adhesive Bonding 184

viii Contents

4.3 Mechanisms of Adhesion 1874.3.1 General Description of Mechanisms 1874.3.2 Force and Energy Bases for Adhesive Bonding 1874.3.3 Theories or Rationalizations for Adhesive Bonding 1884.3.4 Weak Boundary Layer Theory 1914.3.5 Adhesive Tack and Stefan's Equation 192

4.4 Failure in Adhesive-Bonded Joints 1954.4.1 Modes of Failure and What They Indicate 1954.4.2 Causes of Premature Failure in Adhesively Bonded Joints 196

4.5 Key Requirements for Quality Adhesive Bonding 1974.5.1 General Descriptions of Key Requirements 1974.5.2 Joint Cleanliness for Adhesive Bonding 1984.5.3 Ensuring Wetting for Adhesive Bonding 1994.5.4 Selecting an Adhesive 2014.5.5 Proper Joint Design for Adhesive Bonding 203

4.6 Adhesive Joint Designs, Design Criteria, and Analysis 2034.6.1 Basic Principles in Adhesive Joint Design 2034.6.2 Types of Stress Acting on an Adhesive-Bonded Joint 2044.6.3 Typical Joint Designs for Adhesive Bonding 2074.6.4 Classical and Modern Adhesive Joint Analysis 2094.6.5 Joint Design Criteria 2154.6.6 Methods for Improving Bonded-Joint Efficiency 216

4.7 Cement and Mortar Joining and Joints 218Summary 222Questions and Problems 223Cited References 226Bibliography 226

5 Adhesives, Cements, Mortars, and the Bonding Process 227

5.1 Introduction to Adhesives, Cements, Mortars, and the BondingProcess 227

5.2 The Constituents of Adhesives 2285.3 Classification Schemes for Adhesives 231

5.3.1 The Purpose of Classification 2315.3.2 Natural Versus Synthetic Adhesives 2315.3.3 Organic Versus Inorganic Adhesives 2325.3.4 Classification by Function: Structural Versus Nonstructural 2335.3.5 Classification by Chemical Composition 2335.3.6 Classification by Physical Form 2395.3.7 Classification by Mode of Application or by Curing or Setting

Mechanism 2425.3.8 Classification by Specific Adherend or by Application 2435.3.9 Classification of Cements and Mortars 243

Contents ix

5.4 Important Organic Structural Adhesives 2455.4.1 General Description of Organic Structural Adhesives 2455.4.2 Epoxies and Modified Epoxies 2455.4.3 Acrylics and Modified Acrylics 2465.4.4 Cyanoacrylates 2475.4.5 Anaerobics 2475.4.6 Urethanes 2485.4.7 Silicones 2485.4.8 Hot Melts 2485.4.9 Phenolics 2495.4.10 High-Temperature Structural Adhesives 249

5.5 Important Inorganic Adhesives, Cements, and Mortars 2505.6 The Adhesive Bonding Process: Steps and Equipment 256

5.6.1 General Description of the Adhesive Bonding Process 2565.6.2 Adhesive Storage 2565.6.3 Adhesive Preparation 2565.6.4 Joint/Adherend Preparation 2575.6.5 Methods of Adhesive Application 2575.6.6 Joint Assembly Methods 2585.6.7 Bonding Equipment 259

5.7 Adhesive-Bonded Joint Performance 2615.7.1 General Description of Joint Performance Goals 2615.7.2 Testing of Adhesives and Bonded-Joint Properties 2625.7.3 Quality Assurance in Adhesive Bonding 2665.7.4 Typical Properties of Organic Adhesives 2695.7.5 Typical Properties of Important Cements and

Concretes 2705.7.6 Effects of Environmental Factors on Adhesives and

Adhesive-Bonded Joints 2705.8 Applications of Adhesives, Cements, and Mortars 278Summary 279Questions and Problems 280Cited References 283Bibliography 283

6 Welding as a Joining Process 285

6.1 Introduction to the Process of Welding 2856.2 Joining Materials by Natural Physical Forces: Welding 288

6.2.1 General Description 2886.2.2 Creating a Weld with Atomic-Level Forces 2886.2.3 Welding Metals Versus Ceramics or Polymers 2926.2.4 The Importance of Cleaning for Welding 2936.2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Welding 294

x Contents

6.3 Classification Schemes for Welding Processes 2946.3.1 The Need for Classification of Processes 2946.3.2 Classification of Welding Processes by Energy Source 2956.3.3 Classification of Welding Processes by Phase Reaction 2976.3.4 Pressure Versus Non-Pressure Welding Processes 2986.3.5 Fusion Versus Non-Fusion Welding Processes 2996.3.6 Autogenous Versus Homogeneous Versus Heterogeneous

Welding 3016.3.7 Nonconsumable Versus Consumable Electrode Arc

Welding Processes 3036.3.8 Continuous Versus Discontinuous Consumable Electrode

Arc Welding Processes 3036.3.9 The American Welding Society's Classification of

Welding and Allied Processes 3046.4 Fusion Welding Processes 305

6.4.1 General Description of Fusion Welding Processes 3056.4.2 Gas Welding 3056.4.3 Arc Welding 3096.4.4 High-Energy Beam Welding 3256.4.5 Resistance Welding 3266.4.6 Transfer Efficiency in Fusion Welding 331

6.5 Non-Fusion Welding Processes 3326.5.1 General Description of Non-Fusion Welding

Processes 3326.5.2 Cold and Hot Pressure Welding Processes 3336.5.3 Friction Welding Processes 3346.5.4 Diffusion Welding Processes 337

6.6 Weld Joint Design 3386.6.1 General Description of Weld Joint Design 3386.6.2 Size and Amount of Weld 3396.6.3 Types of Weld Joints 341


7 Brazing: A Subclassification of Welding 349

7.1 Introduction to the Process of Brazing 3497.2 Brazing as a Subclassification of Welding 351

7.2.1 General Description of the Relationship BetweenBrazing and Welding 351

7.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Brazing 3537.3 Principles of Braze Process Operation 355

Contents xi

7.4 Brazing Processes 3567.4.1 General Description of Brazing Processes 3567.4.2 Torch Brazing 3577.4.3 Furnace Brazing 3587.4.4 Induction, Resistance, and Microwave Brazing 3587.4.5 Dip Brazing 3607.4.6 Infrared Brazing 3617.4.7 Diffusion Brazing and Transient Liquid-Phase

Bonding 3627.4.8 Other Special Brazing Methods 363

7.5 Brazing Filler Materials 3647.5.1 Basic Characteristics Required of Braze Fillers 3647.5.2 Braze Filler Selection Criteria 3667.5.3 The Metallurgy of a Key Filler System (Cu-Ag) 3677.5.4 Braze Filler Alloy Types 3697.5.5 Ceramic Braze Fillers 3747.5.6 Brazeability and its Assessment 374

7.6 Brazing Fluxes and Atmospheres 3747.6.1 The Need for Fluxes or Atmospheres in Brazing 3747.6.2 Fluxes for Brazing 3757.6.3 Controlled Atmospheres for Brazing 378

7.7 Braze Joint Design 378Summary 383Questions and Problems 385Cited References 387Bibliography 387

8 Soldering: A Subset of Brazing 389

8.1 Introduction to the Process of Soldering 3898.2 Soldering as a Joining Process and Subset of Brazing 391

8.2.1 General Description of Soldering 3918.2.2 Soldering Compared to Non-Fusion Welding, Brazing,

and Adhesive Bonding 3928.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Soldering 393

8.3 Soldering Process Considerations 3958.3.1 General Description of the Needs for Proper Soldering 3958.3.2 Base Material Considerations 3958.3.3 Solder Alloy Selection 3988.3.4 Solder Flux Selection 3988.3.5 Soldering Atmospheres 3998.3.6 Solder Joint Design 3998.3.7 Precleaning 3998.3.8 Choice of Soldering Process 4018.3.9 Excess Solder and Flux Residue Removal 402

xii Contents

8.4 Soldering Processes 4028.4.1 General Description of Soldering Processes 4028.4.2 Iron Soldering 4028.4.3 Torch Soldering 4048.4.4 Oven Soldering 4048.4.5 Dip Soldering 4048.4.6 Wave Soldering 4058.4.7 Induction Soldering 4058.4.8 Resistance Soldering 4068.4.9 Other Special Soldering Methods 4068.4.10 Reflow Methods of Soldering 407

8.5 Solders and Basic Solder Alloy Metallurgy 4078.5.1 Basic Characteristics Required of Solders 4078.5.2 Tin-Lead Solders 4088.5.3 Tin-Antimony and Tin-Lead-Antimony Solders 4118.5.4 Tin-Silver and Tin-Lead-Silver Solders 4168.5.5 Tin-Zinc Solders 4168.5.6 Cadmium-Silver Solders 4178.5.7 Cadmium-Zinc Solders 4208.5.8 Zinc-Aluminum Solders 4208.5.9 Fusible Alloys 4208.5.10 Indium Solders 4218.5.11 Other Special Solders 4248.5.12 Physical Forms of Solders 426

8.6 Fluxes and Atmospheres for Soldering 4278.6.1 The Need for Fluxes or Atmospheres in

Soldering 4278.6.2 Rosin Fluxes 4288.6.3 Organic Fluxes 4298.6.4 Inorganic Fluxes 4298.6.5 Special Fluxes 4298.6.6 Physical Forms of Fluxes 4298.6.7 Fluxless Soldering and Soldering Atmospheres 432

8.7 Joint Designs and Joint Properties for Soldering 4328.7.1 Solder Joint Designs 4328.7.2 Solder Joint Properties 437

8.8 Solderability Testing 4378.8.1 General Description of Solderability Testing 4378.8.2 Wetting Balance Method 4398.8.3 Globule Method 4428.8.4 Spread Test of Solderability 4428.8.5 Other Solderability Test Methods 442


Contents xiii

9 The Basic Metallurgy of Welding, Brazing,and Soldering 447

9.1 Importance of Metallurgy to Welding, Brazing, and Soldering 4479.2 Welding Thermal Cycles and Heat Flow Around Welds 448

9.2.1 General Description of the Effects of Heat During Welding 4489.2.2 Welding Thermal Cycles and Their Effects 4509.2.3 Heat Flow Around Welds 4539.2.4 Microstructural Zones in Welded, Brazed, and Soldered

Joints 4569.2.5 Simplified Equations for Approximating Welding and

Weld Conditions 4589.3 Considerations in the Fusion Zone 460

9.3.1 General Description of the Fusion Zone 4609.3.2 Weld Pool Composition 4619.3.3 Fusion Weld Pool Size and Shape 4639.3.4 Key Principles of Weld, Braze, and Solder Solidification 465

9.4 Considerations in the Partially Melted Zone 4739.5 Considerations in the Heat-Affected Zone 474

9.5.1 General Description of the Heat-Affected Zone of Welded,Brazed, or Soldered Joints 474

9.5.2 Work-Hardened Metals: Recovery, Recrystallization,and Grain Growth 475

9.5.3 Precipitation-Hardened Alloys: Reversion andOveraging 477

9.5.4 Transformation-Hardenable Alloys: Hardenability 4799.5.5 Sensitization in Corrosion-Resistant Stainless Steels 4799.5.6 Solid-Solution Strengthened and Dispersion-Strengthened

Metals 4819.6 Defect Formation and Prevention in Welded, Brazed, and Soldered

Joints 4829.6.1 General Description of the Origin and Impact of

Defects in Joints 4829.6.2 Joint-Induced Defects 4839.6.3 Fusion or Melt Zone Defects 4849.6.4 Partially Melted Zone Defects 4859.6.5 Heat-Affected Zone Defects 486

9.7 Tests of Weldability and Joint Properties 4889.7.1 General Discussion of Weldability and Joint Property

Tests 4889.7.2 Solidification Cracking Susceptibility Tests 4899.7.3 Partially Melted Zone Cracking Susceptibility Tests 4919.7.4 Heat-Affected Zone Cracking Susceptibility Tests 4919.7.5 Weld Joint Property Tests 491

Summary 494Questions and Problems 496

xiv Contents

Cited References 499Bibliography 479

10 Other Joining Processes: Variants and Hybrids 501

10.1 Introduction to Variant and Hybrid Joining Processes 50110.2 Thermal Spraying: A Variant Joining Process 502

10.2.1 General Description of Thermal Spraying 50210.2.2 Mechanism of Thermally Sprayed Coating Adhesion 50410.2.3 Properties of Thermally Sprayed Coatings 50610.2.4 Applications of Thermal Spraying 50610.2.5 Different Methods of Thermal Spraying 507

10.3 Braze Welding: Brazing or Welding? 51010.4 Hybrid Joining Processes 513

10.4.1 General Description of Hybrid Joining Processes 51310.4.2 Rivet-Bonding 51410.4.3 Weld-Bonding 51610.4.4 Weld-Brazing 51910.4.5 Hybrid Welding Processes 521

10.5 Other Combinations: What Makes Sense and WhatDoes Not? 526


II JOINING OF SPECIFIC MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES 533

11 Joining of Metals, Alloys, and Intermetallics 535

11.1 Introduction 53511.1.1 Challenges of Joining Metals and Alloys 53511.1.2 Special Challenges of Joining Metals and Alloys 53611.1.3 Challenges of Joining Intermetallics 53711.1.4 Joining Process Options for Metals and Alloys 53811.1.5 Dealing with Extremes 540

11.2 Joining Refractory Metals and Alloys 54011.2.1 Challenges Posed by Refractory Metals and Alloys 54011.2.2 Mechanically Joining the Refractory Metals and Alloys 54411.2.3 Welding the Refractory Metals and Alloys 54411.2.4 Brazing the Refractory Metals and Alloys 547

11.3 Joining Reactive Metals and Alloys 54711.3.1 Challenges Posed by Reactive Metals and Alloys 547

Contents xv

11.3.2 Mechanically Joining the Reactive Metals and Alloys 55211.3.3 Welding the Reactive Metals and Alloys 55211.3.4 Brazing the Reactive Metals and Alloys 55411.3.5 Adhesive Bonding the Reactive Metals and Alloys 555

11.4 Joining Heat-Sensitive Metals and Alloys 55611.4.1 Challenges Posed by Heat-Sensitive Metals and Alloys 55611.4.2 Welding the Heat-Sensitive Metals and Alloys 55711.4.3 Brazing and Soldering Heat-Sensitive Metals and

Alloys 56011.4.4 Adhesive-Bonding Heat-Sensitive Metals and Alloys 56311.4.5 Mechanically Joining Heat-Sensitive Metals and

Alloys 56311.4.6 Welding, Braze Welding, and Brazing Cast Irons 564

11.5 Joining Dissimilar Metals and Alloys 56711.5.1 Challenges Posed by Dissimilar Metals and Alloys 56711.5.2 Avoiding or Minimizing Fusion Welding 56811.5.3 Using Intermediate Layers or Intermediaries 569

11.6 Joining Intermetallics 57011.6.1 Challenges Posed by Intermetallic Materials 57011.6.2 Welding Intermetallics 57411.6.3 Exothermic Brazing of Intermetallics 575

11.7 Thermal Spraying of Metals, Alloys, and Intermetallics 576Summary 578Questions and Problems 580Cited References 581Bibliography 581

12 Joining of Ceramics and Glasses 583

12.1 Introduction 58312.1.1 Ceramics and Glasses Defined 58312.1.2 The Special Drivers and Challenges for Joining Ceramics and

Glasses 58712.1.3 Basic Joining Techniques for Ceramics and Glasses 588

12.2 Mechanical Joining of Ceramics 59212.2.1 Characteristics of the Mechanical Joining Process 59212.2.2 Mechanical Joining Methods 593

12.3 Adhesive Bonding, Cementing, and Related Joining of Ceramics 59512.3.1 Adhesive Bonding or Joining of Ceramics 59512.3.2 Cement and Mortar Joining of Ceramics

(Including Cement and Concrete) 59612.4 Brazing and Soldering of Ceramics 599

12.4.1 Challenges Posed by Ceramics to Brazingand Soldering 599

xvi Contents

12.4.2 Characteristics of Brazing Methods forCeramics 600

12.4.3 Metal Brazing of Ceramics 60112.4.4 Ceramic Brazing of Ceramics 603

12.5 Welding of Ceramics 60312.5.1 Challenges Posed to Welding by Ceramics 60312.5.2 Solid-Phase (Non-Fusion) Welding of Ceramics 60412.5.3 Fusion Welding of Ceramics 605

12.6 Other Methods for Joining Ceramics to Ceramics 60812.6.1 Wafer Bonding of Ceramics 60812.6.2 Sinter Bonding of Ceramics 60812.6.3 SHS or CS Welding or Brazing of Ceramics 610

12.7 Comparison of Joining Techniques for Ceramics 61112.8 Joining Glasses 612

12.8.1 The Challenges Posed by Joining of Glasses 61212.8.2 Welding or Fusing Glasses 61312.8.3 Cementing and Adhesive Bonding of Glasses 61312.8.4 Soldering of Glasses and Solder Glasses 614


13 Joining of Polymers 621

13.1 Introduction 62113.1.1 Polymers Defined and Classified 62113.1.2 The Challenge of Joining Polymeric Materials 625

13.2 General Methods for Joining Polymers 62613.3 Joining Thermosetting Polymers 628

13.3.1 Challenges Posed to Joining by ThermosettingPolymers 628

13.3.2 Mechanical Joining of Thermosetting Polymers 62813.3.3 Adhesive Bonding of Thermosetting Polymers 630

13.4 Joining Thermoplastic Polymers 63113.4.1 Challenges Posed to Joining by Thermoplastic

Polymers 63113.4.2 Mechanical Fastening of Thermoplastic Polymers 63213.4.3 Integral Snap-Fit Attachment of Thermoplastics 63313.4.4 Adhesive Bonding and Solvent Cementing of

Thermoplastics 63313.4.5 Welding or Thermal Bonding of Thermoplastic

Polymers 63513.5 Joining Elastomeric Polymers or Elastomers 639

Contents xvii

13.6 Joining Structural or Rigid Foam Polymers 64013.7 Joining Dissimilar Polymers 641Summary 643Questions and Problems 644Cited References 645Bibliography 645

14 Joining Composite Materials and Structures 647

14.1 Introduction 64714.1.1 Composites Defined and Classified 64714.1.2 The Special Challenges Posed to Joining by Composites 653

14.2 Options for Joining Composites 65714.2.1 Historical Approach and General Methods for Joining

Composites 65714.2.2 Mechanical Joining Versus Adhesive Bonding of

Composites 65814.3 Joining of Polymer-Matrix Composites 660

14.3.1 Polymer-Matrix Composites Defined 66014.3.2 Mechanical Joining of Polymer-Matrix Composites 66014.3.3 Adhesive Bonding of Polymer-Matrix Composites 66414.3.4 Thermal Bonding or Welding of Thermoplastic

Composites 66714.3.5 A Radical Idea for Joining Thermosetting Composites 670

14.4 Joining of Metal-Matrix Composites (MMCs) 67114.4.1 Metal-Matrix Composites (MMCs) Defined 67114.4.2 General Requirements for Joining MMCs 67214.4.3 Welding MMCs 67314.4.4 Brazing MMCs 67514.4.5 Mechanically Fastening or Integrally Attaching

MMCs 67614.4.6 Adhesive Bonding MMCs 676

14.5 Joining of Ceramic-Matrix Composites (CMCs) 67714.5.1 Ceramic-Matrix Composites (CMCs) Defined 67714.5.2 General Methods for Joining CMCs 67714.5.3 Direct Bonding of Ceramic-Ceramic Composites

(CCCs) 67914.5.4 Welding of CMCs and CCCs 68014.5.5 Brazing of CMCs and CCCs 68014.5.6 Bonding CMCs and CCCs with Adhesives or Cements and

Mortars 68014.6 Joining Carbon, Graphite, or Carbon-Carbon Composites

(CCCs) 68014.6.1 Description of Carbonaceous Materials 680

xviii Contents

14.6.2 Joining by Mechanical Fastening and IntegralAttachment 684

14.6.3 Joining by Brazing 68414.6.4 Joining by Adhesive Bonding 686

14.7 Joining Cement and Concrete 68614.8 Joining Wood: A Natural Composite 68714.9 Achieving Maximum Integrity in Joints Between

Composites 691Summary 692Questions and Problems 693Cited References 695Bibliography 695

15 Joining Dissimilar Material Combinations 697

15.1 Introduction 69715.1.1 The Need for Joining Dissimilar Materials 69715.1.2 The Special Challenges of Joining Dissimilar

Materials 69915.2 Logical and Illogical Combinations of Materials 70115.3 Joining Metals to Ceramics 702

15.3.1 General Comments on the Challenges of thisCombination 702

15.3.2 General Methods for Joining Metals to Ceramics 70415.3.3 Mechanical Methods for Joining 70415.3.4 Direct Joining by Welding 70515.3.5 Indirect Bonding Methods for Joining 71115.3.6 Functional Gradient Materials (FGMs) as Joints 714

15.4 Joining Metals to Glasses 71415.4.1 General Comments on the Challenges of Metal-to-Glass

Joining 71415.4.2 Properties of Metal-to-Glass Seals 71615.4.3 Glasses Used for Sealing to Metals 71715.4.4 Methods for Producing Metal-to-Glass Joints and Seals 71

15.5 Joining Metals to Polymers 72215.5.1 General Comments on Challenges of Joining Metals

to Polymers 72215.5.2 Methods for Joining Metals to Polymers 723

15.6 Joining Metals to Composites 72415.6.1 General Comments on the Challenges for Joining Metals

to Composites 72415.6.2 Joining Metals to Polymer-Matrix Composites 72615.6.3 Joining Metals to Metal-Matrix or Ceramic-Matrix

Composites 729

Contents xix

15.7 Joining of Ceramics to Polymers 73115.8 Joining Ceramics to Composites 732

15.8.1 General Comments on the Challenges for JoiningCeramics to Composites 732

15.8.2 Methods for Joining Ceramics to VariousComposites 732

15.9 Joining Polymers to Polymer-Matrix Composites 73315.9.1 General Comments on the Challenges of Joining Polymers

to Polymer-Matrix Composites 73315.9.2 Methods for Joining Polymers to Polymer-Matrix

Composites 73415.10 Joining Wood to Other Materials 73515.11 Joining Cement or Concrete to Other Materials 73615.12 Logical and Illogical Combinations Revisited 736Summary 736Questions and Problems 739Cited References 741Bibliography 741

16 Joining Structures and Living Tissue 743

16.1 Introduction to the Joining of Structures and Living Tissue 74316.2 The Challenges Associated With Joining Structures 744

16.2.1 Joining Very Large Structures 74416.2.2 Joining Very Small Structures or Components 74916.2.3 Joining Very Thick Structures or Components 75016.2.4 Joining Very Thin Structures or Components 75416.2.5 Joining Thin to Thick Components 756

16.3 The Challenges of Joining in Hostile Environments 75616.3.1 Joining in Extreme Cold 75816.3.2 Joining Underwater 75816.3.3 Joining in a Radioactive Environment 75916.3.4 Joining in Outer Space 760

16.4 Joining Living Tissue 76116.4.1 Living Tissue as a Structure as Opposed to as a

Material 76116.4.2 Living Tissue Repair Versus Implantation of Nonliving

Materials 76216.4.3 Fundamentals of Joining or Regeneration of

Tissue 76616.4.4 Methods for Joining Living Tissue 76716.4.5 Promoting Biocompatibility at Tissue-Material

Implant Interfaces 770Summary 772

xx Contents

Questions and Problems 773Cited References 775Bibliography 775

Index 777

joining of materials and structures - gbv

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