the role of technology in the educational environment ghostwriter: a narrative virtual environment...

The Role of Technology The Role of Technology in the Educational in the Educational

EnvironmentEnvironment Ghostwriter: A narrative virtual Ghostwriter: A narrative virtual

environment for children environment for children

Robertson & Good (2003)Robertson & Good (2003)

Becky Sutton, Jen Tonks, Sam Wheeler, Terry Becky Sutton, Jen Tonks, Sam Wheeler, Terry SpokesSpokes

An Educational An Educational RevolutionRevolution

• In the later 20th and early 21st century, the marked In the later 20th and early 21st century, the marked influence on education comes from information and influence on education comes from information and computing technology (Januszewski 2003)computing technology (Januszewski 2003)

• Four major educational revolutions: the invention of Four major educational revolutions: the invention of reading and writing, the emergence of the reading and writing, the emergence of the profession of teacher, the increase in availability of profession of teacher, the increase in availability of books, and now, electronic technology (Billings, books, and now, electronic technology (Billings, Moursund & Eugene 1988)Moursund & Eugene 1988)

• ‘‘Information technology is equated with the modern Information technology is equated with the modern world, economic success and the future; and so world, economic success and the future; and so schools must embrace this technology’ (Watson schools must embrace this technology’ (Watson 2001)2001)

Educational Technology Educational Technology and Politicsand Politics

• ““Technology has revolutionised the way Technology has revolutionised the way we work and is now set to transform we work and is now set to transform education. Children cannot be effective education. Children cannot be effective in tomorrow’s world if they are trained in tomorrow’s world if they are trained in yesterday’s skills. Nor should teachers in yesterday’s skills. Nor should teachers be denied tools that other professionals be denied tools that other professionals are trained to take for granted”are trained to take for granted”

• (Tony Blair, launching the National Grid for Learning, (Tony Blair, launching the National Grid for Learning, 1997 in Watson 2001)1997 in Watson 2001)

Educational Technology = Educational Technology = Computers?Computers?

• Computers are at the centre of any discussion of Computers are at the centre of any discussion of educational technology (Eisenberg 2004)educational technology (Eisenberg 2004)

• The computer constitutes the technological The computer constitutes the technological cornerstone of the Information Society cornerstone of the Information Society (Christensen 1986) and over the last twenty years (Christensen 1986) and over the last twenty years there have been substantial central government there have been substantial central government initiatives to promote the use of computers in UK initiatives to promote the use of computers in UK schools (Watson 2001)schools (Watson 2001)

• Instruction and training should closely parallel the Instruction and training should closely parallel the final desired behaviours, and so if we need workers final desired behaviours, and so if we need workers who are adept at using computers, we should who are adept at using computers, we should centralise computer use in education (Billings et al centralise computer use in education (Billings et al 1988)1988)

Breadth of TechnologyBreadth of Technology• The term ‘technology’ denotes a subject whose The term ‘technology’ denotes a subject whose

history long predates the advent of computers history long predates the advent of computers and the Internet (Eisenberg 2004)and the Internet (Eisenberg 2004)

• Any thorough history of technology will Any thorough history of technology will inevitably include discussions of glass working, inevitably include discussions of glass working, textile manufacture, uses of rubber, textile manufacture, uses of rubber, papermaking, and many other topics centring papermaking, and many other topics centring on the processing of materials (Eisenberg 2004)on the processing of materials (Eisenberg 2004)

• Fourth Revolution = calculators, videotape Fourth Revolution = calculators, videotape recorders, videodiscs, electronic bulletin recorders, videodiscs, electronic bulletin boards, computerized databanks, boards, computerized databanks, telecommunication satellites, fibre optics, telecommunication satellites, fibre optics, cellular telephones, etc (Billings et al 1988)cellular telephones, etc (Billings et al 1988)

Impact of TechnologyImpact of Technology

• ““Technology can transform how we Technology can transform how we think about ourselves as human beings think about ourselves as human beings (Turkle, 1984), how we make decisions (Turkle, 1984), how we make decisions in the military, medicine, architecture, in the military, medicine, architecture, and engineering (McCorduck, 1979; and engineering (McCorduck, 1979; Perrolle, Perrolle, 19931993; ; Reinhoid, 1984), how we Reinhoid, 1984), how we communicate with one another (Vallee, communicate with one another (Vallee, 1982) and how we record history, pass 1982) and how we record history, pass on knowledge, and learn”on knowledge, and learn”

• (Christensen 1986) (Christensen 1986)

Applying Technology to Applying Technology to EducationEducation

• Classroom apparatus of all kinds may be made Classroom apparatus of all kinds may be made more interesting, responsive, or educationally more interesting, responsive, or educationally powerful through the integration of novel powerful through the integration of novel materials (Eisenberg 2004)materials (Eisenberg 2004)

• One could incorporate sensors into an anatomical One could incorporate sensors into an anatomical model, so that a child could ask for the name of a model, so that a child could ask for the name of a particular muscle or bone by touching its particular muscle or bone by touching its representation representation (Eisenberg 2004)(Eisenberg 2004)

• A shop tool could respond to indicate that it is A shop tool could respond to indicate that it is being held in a correct fashion; a sensor equipped being held in a correct fashion; a sensor equipped baseball could help its user adopt the proper grip baseball could help its user adopt the proper grip for a curveball; a violin bow could help a young for a curveball; a violin bow could help a young musician learn the correct grip; and so forth’ musician learn the correct grip; and so forth’ (Eisenberg 2004)(Eisenberg 2004)

Case Study: Case Study: GHOSTWRITERGHOSTWRITER

[Robertson, J & Good, J. (2003), [Robertson, J & Good, J. (2003), ACM Press]ACM Press] Based on computer game and virtual Based on computer game and virtual

reality technologyreality technology Overview of the Ghostwriter gameOverview of the Ghostwriter game ScenarioScenario FindingsFindings

GHOSTWRITERGHOSTWRITER

Based on computer game and Based on computer game and virtual reality technology :virtual reality technology : Computer games very popular with Computer games very popular with

childrenchildren Absorbing and engaging…ideal Absorbing and engaging…ideal

conditions for learningconditions for learning Developed by commercial game Developed by commercial game

engine engine UnrealUnreal


Overview of the Ghostwriter game :Overview of the Ghostwriter game : Pairs of children engage in computer Pairs of children engage in computer

generated role-play, taking on a character generated role-play, taking on a character eacheach

A human role-play leader encourages the A human role-play leader encourages the children to be emotionally involved in the children to be emotionally involved in the story and to discuss decisions with each otherstory and to discuss decisions with each other

Role-players control their characters in the Role-players control their characters in the virtual worldvirtual world

COMMUNICATION between players is VITALCOMMUNICATION between players is VITAL


Scenario :Scenario : Jenny and Daniel asked by Grandmother to Jenny and Daniel asked by Grandmother to

find her friend, Fred, who lives in a castlefind her friend, Fred, who lives in a castle Fred cannot leave the virtual castle as he is Fred cannot leave the virtual castle as he is

protecting it from Lady Searle, an evil protecting it from Lady Searle, an evil sorceresssorceress

Jenny and Daniel become separatedJenny and Daniel become separated Jenny and Daniel eventually find each other Jenny and Daniel eventually find each other

but have very conflicting experiencesbut have very conflicting experiences How will they make sense of these?How will they make sense of these?


Findings:Findings:

“Fun”

“Brilliant!”

“Cool”

42 out of the 60 child participants, aged 10-12 years, were interviewed in pairs after playing the game.

All teachers agreed that the game benefited the children.

GHOSTWRITERGHOSTWRITER “ “A primary educational aim of the system was A primary educational aim of the system was

to help pupils prepare for story writing to help pupils prepare for story writing activities by role-playing in Ghostwriter and activities by role-playing in Ghostwriter and then writing an adventure based on their then writing an adventure based on their experiences…pupils who used their experiences…pupils who used their experiences during the Ghostwriter experiences during the Ghostwriter adventure as a basis for writing a story adventure as a basis for writing a story produced stories with significantly more produced stories with significantly more descriptions of relationships between descriptions of relationships between characters and dialogue in comparison to characters and dialogue in comparison to stories written during a normal classroom stories written during a normal classroom writing lesson” writing lesson” (Robertson and Good, 2003, p.90)(Robertson and Good, 2003, p.90)

Controversies of Controversies of Technology in Education – Technology in Education –

Positive AspectsPositive Aspects Ghostwriter was successful – children enjoyed Ghostwriter was successful – children enjoyed

itit Provided an immersive, engaging learning Provided an immersive, engaging learning

environmentenvironment Encourages expression of feeling, thinking Encourages expression of feeling, thinking

about course of action, ethical decision about course of action, ethical decision making, interaction and promotion of moral making, interaction and promotion of moral growthgrowth

Story-writing after Ghostwriter - significantly Story-writing after Ghostwriter - significantly more descriptions of relationships between more descriptions of relationships between characters and dialogue - transformed plot characters and dialogue - transformed plot ideas and language - able to retell in own styleideas and language - able to retell in own style

Computer Games in Computer Games in EducationEducation

““Games provide a forum in which learning Games provide a forum in which learning arises as a result of tasks stimulated by the arises as a result of tasks stimulated by the content of the games, knowledge is content of the games, knowledge is developed through the content of the game, developed through the content of the game, and skills are developed as a result of and skills are developed as a result of playing the game” (TEEM, 2005)playing the game” (TEEM, 2005)

Can be attractive and exciting, therefore Can be attractive and exciting, therefore motivating (BECTA, 2004)motivating (BECTA, 2004)

Do not appear related to violence and anti-Do not appear related to violence and anti-social behaviour social behaviour (Gunter, 1998, in (Gunter, 1998, in Robertson and Good, 2003) Robertson and Good, 2003)

A social activity (McNamee, 1999, in A social activity (McNamee, 1999, in Robertson and Good, 2003)Robertson and Good, 2003)

Technology in EducationTechnology in Education When certain conditions are met, increased When certain conditions are met, increased

motivation, higher test scores and lower costmotivation, higher test scores and lower cost Need technology relevant to curriculum, Need technology relevant to curriculum,

sufficient access to technology, adequate sufficient access to technology, adequate teacher preparation, technical, school and teacher preparation, technical, school and community support (NCREL, 1999)community support (NCREL, 1999)

The primary reason teachers do not use The primary reason teachers do not use technology in their classrooms is a lack of technology in their classrooms is a lack of experience with the technology (Wenglinsky, experience with the technology (Wenglinsky, 1998, in NCREL, 1999)1998, in NCREL, 1999)

Can be designed and developed to meet Can be designed and developed to meet specific needsspecific needs

Technology in Education – Technology in Education – Cognitive BenefitsCognitive Benefits

Technology encourages integrated, inquiry-Technology encourages integrated, inquiry-based learning (Goldman et al, 1999, in based learning (Goldman et al, 1999, in NCREL, 1999)NCREL, 1999)

Technology can be used as a tutor, a means to Technology can be used as a tutor, a means to explore, a tool to create, compose, store, and explore, a tool to create, compose, store, and analyze data,analyze data, and a means to communicate and a means to communicate with others (Johnson, 1997, in NCREL, 1999)with others (Johnson, 1997, in NCREL, 1999)

Technology can "engage children in Technology can "engage children in exploring, thinking, reading, writing, exploring, thinking, reading, writing, researching, inventing, problem-solving, and researching, inventing, problem-solving, and experiencing the world (Bruce and Levin, experiencing the world (Bruce and Levin, 1997, in NCREL, 1999) 1997, in NCREL, 1999)

Technology in Education – Technology in Education – Cognitive BenefitsCognitive Benefits

Fosters collaboration among students, Fosters collaboration among students, which in turn may have a positive effect which in turn may have a positive effect on student achievement (Tinzmann, on student achievement (Tinzmann, 1998, in NCREL, 1999)1998, in NCREL, 1999)

Self-esteem – increased sense of Self-esteem – increased sense of capability (NCREL, 1999) – particularly capability (NCREL, 1999) – particularly if limited access to technologyif limited access to technology

Technology in Education – Technology in Education – Practical BenefitsPractical Benefits

Prepare students for a future in Prepare students for a future in which both higher education and the which both higher education and the world of work are infused with world of work are infused with technology – give the confidence and technology – give the confidence and skills in using such technology that skills in using such technology that they will need after graduation (U.S. they will need after graduation (U.S. Department of Education, 2004) Department of Education, 2004)

Technology in Education: Technology in Education: DifficultiesDifficulties

Not all technology, such as Ghostwriter, is Not all technology, such as Ghostwriter, is good for all classrooms, or indeed for all good for all classrooms, or indeed for all pupils (Becker, 1994)pupils (Becker, 1994)

Effective use of technology must be supported Effective use of technology must be supported by significant investments (hardware, by significant investments (hardware, software, infrastructure, professional software, infrastructure, professional development, and support services) development, and support services)

Call for evidence regarding the efficacy and Call for evidence regarding the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of technology in schools cost-effectiveness of technology in schools (Panel on Educational Technology, 1997; (Panel on Educational Technology, 1997; Melmed, 1995)Melmed, 1995)


Difficult to evaluate benefits:Difficult to evaluate benefits:

Benefits of technology cannot be treated Benefits of technology cannot be treated as a single independent variableas a single independent variable Impacts upon critical thinking, analysis skills, Impacts upon critical thinking, analysis skills,

making inferences and problem solvingmaking inferences and problem solving Assessment methods and instruments Assessment methods and instruments

should be appropriate to the learning should be appropriate to the learning outcomes promoted by those technologies outcomes promoted by those technologies (Glennan & Melmed, 1996; Conte, 1997)(Glennan & Melmed, 1996; Conte, 1997)


Difficult to evaluate benefits:Difficult to evaluate benefits:

Multiple quantitative and qualitative evaluation Multiple quantitative and qualitative evaluation measures may be necessary to document student measures may be necessary to document student learning outcomes. Heinecke, Blasi, Milman, and learning outcomes. Heinecke, Blasi, Milman, and Washington (1999)Washington (1999)

Learning how to use new technology may take Learning how to use new technology may take precedence over learning through new precedence over learning through new technology. "The technology learning curve technology. "The technology learning curve tends to eclipse content learning temporarily; tends to eclipse content learning temporarily; both kids and teachers seem to orient to both kids and teachers seem to orient to technology until they become comfortable" technology until they become comfortable" Goldman, Cole, and Syer (1999)Goldman, Cole, and Syer (1999)


Until benefits can be adequately measured- Until benefits can be adequately measured- investing in technology can prove fruitless. Such investing in technology can prove fruitless. Such analyses, however, are very costly and time analyses, however, are very costly and time consumingconsuming

Costs of successfully implementing new technology Costs of successfully implementing new technology are vast- why risk undertaking such a massive task are vast- why risk undertaking such a massive task in the face of established learning aidsin the face of established learning aids

Many innovations in education have come and Many innovations in education have come and gone without fulfilling their promisesgone without fulfilling their promises

Schools will be held accountable for these Schools will be held accountable for these investments, so there is a lack of enthusiasminvestments, so there is a lack of enthusiasm


Changes in the classroom correlate with Changes in the classroom correlate with changes in other educational factors changes in other educational factors

Because schools are complex social Because schools are complex social environments it is impossible to change just environments it is impossible to change just one thing at a timeone thing at a time (Glennan & Melmed, (Glennan & Melmed, 1996; Hawkins, Panush, & Spielvogel, 1996; Hawkins, Panush, & Spielvogel, 1996; Newman, 1990)1996; Newman, 1990)

Technology cannot be simply added to an Technology cannot be simply added to an existing educational settingexisting educational setting


Research suggests that the value of Research suggests that the value of technology is not realized unless technology is not realized unless attention is paid to several important attention is paid to several important considerations that support the considerations that support the effective use of technology effective use of technology (Chang, Henriquez, Honey, Light, Moeller, & Ross, (Chang, Henriquez, Honey, Light, Moeller, & Ross,

1998; Cradler, 1997; Frederiksen & White, 1997; 1998; Cradler, 1997; Frederiksen & White, 1997; Hawkins, Panush, & Spielvogel, 1996; Honey, Hawkins, Panush, & Spielvogel, 1996; Honey, McMillan, Tsikalas, & Light, 1996; National McMillan, Tsikalas, & Light, 1996; National Foundation for the Improvement of Education, Foundation for the Improvement of Education, 1996; Pea & Gomez, 1992).1996; Pea & Gomez, 1992).


Students who would most benefit from Students who would most benefit from effective technology use (females, effective technology use (females, special-needs students, minority special-needs students, minority students, disadvantaged students, students, disadvantaged students, students at risk of educational failure, students at risk of educational failure, rural and inner-city students) are often rural and inner-city students) are often consigned to less frequent access, consigned to less frequent access, older equipment, and simple software older equipment, and simple software applications applications (Gaines, Johnson, & King, (Gaines, Johnson, & King, 1996)1996)


Teachers' perceptions of their students' Teachers' perceptions of their students' capabilities can shift dramatically when capabilities can shift dramatically when technology is integrated into the classroom technology is integrated into the classroom (Honey, Chang, Light, Moeller, in press)(Honey, Chang, Light, Moeller, in press)

Teachers frequently find themselves acting Teachers frequently find themselves acting more as coaches and less as lecturers more as coaches and less as lecturers (Henriquez & Riconscente, 1998)(Henriquez & Riconscente, 1998)

Students cannot be expected to benefit Students cannot be expected to benefit from technology if their teachers are from technology if their teachers are neither familiar nor comfortable with itneither familiar nor comfortable with it


Teachers need to be supported in their Teachers need to be supported in their efforts to use technology. The primary efforts to use technology. The primary reason teachers do not use technology reason teachers do not use technology in their classrooms is a lack of in their classrooms is a lack of experience with the technology experience with the technology (Wenglinsky, 1998; Rosen & Weil, 1995).(Wenglinsky, 1998; Rosen & Weil, 1995).

Often it takes years until teachers can Often it takes years until teachers can use technology effectively in core use technology effectively in core subject areas subject areas (Goldman, Cole, & Syer, (Goldman, Cole, & Syer, 1999)1999)


Wider changes:Wider changes:

Important to build time into the daily Important to build time into the daily schedule allowing teachers time to schedule allowing teachers time to collaborate with their students. It may need collaborate with their students. It may need more than a daily 30- or 40-minute period more than a daily 30- or 40-minute period (Becker, 1994)(Becker, 1994)

Community-wide involvement in determining Community-wide involvement in determining the school's technology goals benefits the the school's technology goals benefits the entire educational process (Panel on entire educational process (Panel on Educational Technology, 1997)Educational Technology, 1997)


School districts that successfully School districts that successfully integrate technology show a clear integrate technology show a clear and meaningful connection between and meaningful connection between technology and larger educational technology and larger educational goals. Panush, and Spielvogel (1996)goals. Panush, and Spielvogel (1996)

These wider considerations add to These wider considerations add to the spiraling costthe spiraling cost

CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS

Guidelines for developing Guidelines for developing Ghostwriter :Ghostwriter : MeaningMeaning Background informationBackground information Virtual lives need to have valueVirtual lives need to have value ResponsibilityResponsibility Difficult moral choicesDifficult moral choices Story and environment need to make Story and environment need to make

sensesense Role-player leader must be human Role-player leader must be human

CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS

General guidelines General guidelines [adapted from [adapted from Taylor, R., Taylor, R., 19881988]]:: Apply technology first to major educational Apply technology first to major educational

problem areas…make it useful!problem areas…make it useful! Do not assume introducing technology to Do not assume introducing technology to

address an issue will be successful first timeaddress an issue will be successful first time Do not be afraid to try new technological Do not be afraid to try new technological

developments…be flexible and open-minded.developments…be flexible and open-minded. Evaluation is essentialEvaluation is essential Assume that heavy use of technology will cost Assume that heavy use of technology will cost

the school far more than expectedthe school far more than expected

ReferencesReferences Becker, H.J. (1994, March). Becker, H.J. (1994, March). Analysis and trends of school use of Analysis and trends of school use of

new information technologiesnew information technologies [Online]. Available: [Online]. Available: http://www.gse.uci.edu/EdTechUse/c-tblcnt.htmhttp://www.gse.uci.edu/EdTechUse/c-tblcnt.htm

Billings, K. Moursund, D & Eugene, O (1988) Billings, K. Moursund, D & Eugene, O (1988) Computers in Computers in Education: An Historical PerspectiveEducation: An Historical Perspective http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/390000/382854/p13-billings.pdf?http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/390000/382854/p13-billings.pdf?key1=382854&key2=5055033111&coll=key1=382854&key2=5055033111&coll=Portal&dlPortal&dl=GUIDE&CFID=41797571&CFTOKEN=27754582=GUIDE&CFID=41797571&CFTOKEN=27754582 [www. delivery.acm.org] Date of Retrieval 12/04/05[www. delivery.acm.org] Date of Retrieval 12/04/05

British Council (2004). British Council (2004). http://www.britishcouncil.org/korea-trenduk-october04-gaming2.http://www.britishcouncil.org/korea-trenduk-october04-gaming2.htmhtm, accessed 11/05/05, accessed 11/05/05

British Educational Communications and Technology Agency: British Educational Communications and Technology Agency: BECTABECTA (2004). Computer Games in Education. (2004). Computer Games in Education. Available from:Available from: http://www.becta.org.uk/research/research.cfm?http://www.becta.org.uk/research/research.cfm?section=1&id=519 [Last accessed 13/05/2005]section=1&id=519 [Last accessed 13/05/2005]

Chang, H., Henriquez, A., Honey, M., Light, D., Moeller, B., & Chang, H., Henriquez, A., Honey, M., Light, D., Moeller, B., & Ross, N. (1998, April). Ross, N. (1998, April). The Union City story: Education reform The Union City story: Education reform and technology: Students' performance on standardized testsand technology: Students' performance on standardized tests. . New York: Center for Children and Technology, Education New York: Center for Children and Technology, Education Development Center.Development Center.

ReferencesReferences Christensen, K (1986) Christensen, K (1986) ETHICS OF INFORMATION ETHICS OF INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMTECHNOLOGY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/1050000/1045096/p60-christensehttp://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/1050000/1045096/p60-christensen.pdf?key1=1045096&key2=0768123111&coll=n.pdf?key1=1045096&key2=0768123111&coll=portal&dlportal&dl=ACM&CFID=41726041&CFTOKEN=10839737=ACM&CFID=41726041&CFTOKEN=10839737 [www. [www. delivery.acm.org] Date of Retrieval 11/04/05delivery.acm.org] Date of Retrieval 11/04/05

Cradler, J. (1997, October). The effectiveness of educational Cradler, J. (1997, October). The effectiveness of educational technology and the conditions under which it is most effective. technology and the conditions under which it is most effective. TimeTime [Special report: [Special report: How to Teach Children WellHow to Teach Children Well].].

Eisenberg, M (2004) Eisenberg, M (2004) Tangible Ideas for Children: Materials Tangible Ideas for Children: Materials Science as the Future of Educational TechnologyScience as the Future of Educational Technology http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/1020000/1017836/p19-eisenberg.http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/1020000/1017836/p19-eisenberg.pdf?key1=1017836&key2=0183123111&coll=pdf?key1=1017836&key2=0183123111&coll=portal&dlportal&dl=ACM&CFID=41726041&CFTOKEN=10839737=ACM&CFID=41726041&CFTOKEN=10839737 [www. [www. delivery.acm.org] Date of Retrieval 11/04/05delivery.acm.org] Date of Retrieval 11/04/05

Gaines, C.L., Johnson, W., & King, D.T. (1996, June). Achieving Gaines, C.L., Johnson, W., & King, D.T. (1996, June). Achieving technological equity and equal access to the learning tools of the technological equity and equal access to the learning tools of the 21st century. 21st century. Technological Horizons in Education Journal, Technological Horizons in Education Journal, 2323(11), 74-77. Available online: (11), 74-77. Available online: http://www.thejournal.com/magazine/vault/A400.cfmhttp://www.thejournal.com/magazine/vault/A400.cfm

ReferencesReferences Glennan, T. K., & Melmed, A. (1996). Glennan, T. K., & Melmed, A. (1996). Fostering the use of Fostering the use of

educational technology: Elements of a national strategyeducational technology: Elements of a national strategy. . Washington, DC: RAND. Available online: Washington, DC: RAND. Available online: http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/os/technology/plan/ranhttp://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/os/technology/plan/rand/costs/index.htmld/costs/index.html

Goldman, S., Cole, K., & Syer, C. (1999). Goldman, S., Cole, K., & Syer, C. (1999). The The technology/content dilemmatechnology/content dilemma [Online]. Available: [Online]. Available: http://www.ed.gov/Technology/TechConf/1999/whitepapershttp://www.ed.gov/Technology/TechConf/1999/whitepapers/paper4.html/paper4.html

Hawkins, J., Panush, E.M., & Spielvogel, R. (1996, Hawkins, J., Panush, E.M., & Spielvogel, R. (1996, DecemberDecember). National study tour of district technology ). National study tour of district technology integrationintegration. (Summary report). New York: Center for . (Summary report). New York: Center for Children and Technology, Education Development Center.Children and Technology, Education Development Center.

Heinecke, W.F., Blasi, L., Milman, N., & Washington, L. Heinecke, W.F., Blasi, L., Milman, N., & Washington, L. (1999). (1999). New directions in the evaluation of the New directions in the evaluation of the effectiveness of educational technologyeffectiveness of educational technology [Online]. Available: [Online]. Available: http://www.ed.gov/Technology/TechConf/1999/whitepapershttp://www.ed.gov/Technology/TechConf/1999/whitepapers/paper8.html/paper8.html

ReferencesReferences Henriquez, A., & Riconscente, M. (1998, July). Henriquez, A., & Riconscente, M. (1998, July). Rhode Rhode

Island teachers and technology initiative: Findings from Island teachers and technology initiative: Findings from the pilot implementation yearthe pilot implementation year. New York: Center for . New York: Center for Children and Technology, Education Development Center.Children and Technology, Education Development Center.

Honey, M., Chang, H., Light, D., & Moeller, B. (in press). Honey, M., Chang, H., Light, D., & Moeller, B. (in press). Union City online: Internet-using teachers' beliefs and Union City online: Internet-using teachers' beliefs and practicespractices. New York: Center for Children and Technology, . New York: Center for Children and Technology, Education Development Center.Education Development Center.

Honey, M., & Hawkins, J. (1996). Honey, M., & Hawkins, J. (1996). Digital archives: Creating Digital archives: Creating effective designs for elementary and secondary educatorseffective designs for elementary and secondary educators. . Paper commissioned for Paper commissioned for The Future of Networking The Future of Networking Technologies for LearningTechnologies for Learning. Washington, DC: U.S. . Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Available online: Department of Education. Available online: http://http://www.ed.gov/Technology/Futures/honey.htmlwww.ed.gov/Technology/Futures/honey.html

Januszewski, A (2003) Januszewski, A (2003) Educational Technology: The Educational Technology: The Development of a Concept Development of a Concept http://www.springerlink.com/media/DFDQ68XVRK0WWPMhttp://www.springerlink.com/media/DFDQ68XVRK0WWPM3HK91/Contributions/N/7/5/K/N75K4X0W45X73251.pdf. 3HK91/Contributions/N/7/5/K/N75K4X0W45X73251.pdf. Date of Retrieval 12/04/05 Date of Retrieval 12/04/05

ReferencesReferences Karagianis, L. (2004). Karagianis, L. (2004). Tangible Technology:Tangible Technology:

Bridging physical space with cyberspace.Bridging physical space with cyberspace. Available from: Available from: http://web.mit.edu/giving/spectrum/fall04/tangible_technology.htmlhttp://web.mit.edu/giving/spectrum/fall04/tangible_technology.html [Last accessed 13/05/2005] [Last accessed 13/05/2005]

Melmed, A. (Ed.). (1995, November). Melmed, A. (Ed.). (1995, November). The costs and effectiveness of The costs and effectiveness of educational technology: Proceedings of a workshopeducational technology: Proceedings of a workshop [Online]. Santa [Online]. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.Monica, CA: Rand.

Newman, D. (1990). Newman, D. (1990). Technology's role in restructuring for Technology's role in restructuring for collaborative learningcollaborative learning (CTE Technical Report #8). New York: Center (CTE Technical Report #8). New York: Center for Children and Technology, Education Development Center.for Children and Technology, Education Development Center.

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory: NCREL (1999).North Central Regional Educational Laboratory: NCREL (1999). Critical Issue: Using Technology to Improve Student Achievement. Critical Issue: Using Technology to Improve Student Achievement. Available from: Available from: http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/technlgy/te800.htmhttp://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/technlgy/te800.htm [Last accessed 13/05/2005][Last accessed 13/05/2005]

Panel on Educational Technology, President's Committee of Advisors Panel on Educational Technology, President's Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology. (1997, March). on Science and Technology. (1997, March). Report to the President Report to the President on the use of technology to strengthen K-12 education in the United on the use of technology to strengthen K-12 education in the United StatesStates [Online]. Available: [Online]. Available: http://www.ostp.gov/PCAST/k-12ed.htmlhttp://www.ostp.gov/PCAST/k-12ed.html

ReferencesReferences Pea, R., & Gomez, L. (1992). Distributed multimedia learning Pea, R., & Gomez, L. (1992). Distributed multimedia learning

environments: Why and how? environments: Why and how? Interactive Learning Environments, Interactive Learning Environments, 22(2), 73-109.(2), 73-109.

Rada, R & Schoening, J (1997) Rada, R & Schoening, J (1997) Educational Technology Standards Educational Technology Standards Sharing Standards Sharing Standards http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/270000/260754/p15-rada.pdf?http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/270000/260754/p15-rada.pdf?key1=260754&key2=8870033111&coll=Portal&dl=GUIDE&CFID=4key1=260754&key2=8870033111&coll=Portal&dl=GUIDE&CFID=41797571&CFTOKEN=27754582 [www. delivery.acm.org] Date of 1797571&CFTOKEN=27754582 [www. delivery.acm.org] Date of Retrieval 12/04/05Retrieval 12/04/05

Robertson, J. and Good, J. (2003). Robertson, J. and Good, J. (2003). GhostwriterGhostwriter, , http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/960000 /953549/p85-robertson.pdf?http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/960000 /953549/p85-robertson.pdf?key1=953549&key2=7584665111&coll=GUIDE&dl=GUIDE& key1=953549&key2=7584665111&coll=GUIDE&dl=GUIDE& CFID=41808274&CFTOKEN=73249076, ACM Press, accessed CFID=41808274&CFTOKEN=73249076, ACM Press, accessed 16/04/0516/04/05

Rosen, L.D., & Weil, M. (1995). Computer availability, computer Rosen, L.D., & Weil, M. (1995). Computer availability, computer experience and technophobia among public school teachers. experience and technophobia among public school teachers. Computers and Human Behavior, 11Computers and Human Behavior, 11, 9-31., 9-31.

Surgeon General (2001). Surgeon General (2001). Youth Violence: A Report of the Surgeon Youth Violence: A Report of the Surgeon GeneralGeneral, , http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/youthviolence/chapter4/appenhttp://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/youthviolence/chapter4/appendix4b.html, accessed 11/05/05dix4b.html, accessed 11/05/05

ReferencesReferences Taylor, R. (1988)Taylor, R. (1988) Teachers Evaluating Educational Multimedia: TEEM (2005).Teachers Evaluating Educational Multimedia: TEEM (2005).

Report on the educational use of gamesReport on the educational use of games http://www.teem.org.uk/publications/teem_gamesined_full.phttp://www.teem.org.uk/publications/teem_gamesined_full.pdf [Last accessed 13/05/2005]df [Last accessed 13/05/2005]

U.S Department of Education (2004). U.S Department of Education (2004). Reasons For Bringing Reasons For Bringing Technology Into Schools. Technology Into Schools. Available from: Available from: http://www.ed.gov/pubs/EdReformStudies/EdTech/reasons.hhttp://www.ed.gov/pubs/EdReformStudies/EdTech/reasons.htmltml [Last accessed 13/05/2005][Last accessed 13/05/2005]

Watson, D (2001) Watson, D (2001) Pedagogy before Technology: Re-thinking Pedagogy before Technology: Re-thinking the Relationship between ICT and Teachingthe Relationship between ICT and Teaching http://www.springerlink.com/media/2G540X56EK0YWMEE1http://www.springerlink.com/media/2G540X56EK0YWMEE1XV2/Contributions/W/3/4/3/W343NQ3375053K23.pdf Date XV2/Contributions/W/3/4/3/W343NQ3375053K23.pdf Date of Retrieval 12/04/05of Retrieval 12/04/05

Wenglinsky, H. (1998). Wenglinsky, H. (1998). Does it compute? The relationship Does it compute? The relationship between educational technology and student achievement in between educational technology and student achievement in mathematicsmathematics [Online]. Available : [Online]. Available : ftp://ftp.ets.org/pub/res/technolog.pdfftp://ftp.ets.org/pub/res/technolog.pdf

the role of technology in the educational environment ghostwriter: a narrative virtual environment...

Documents

information technology

technology watson

term technology

breadth of technology

politics technology

role of technology

electronic technology

thorough history of