The Scientific Revolution The Scientific Revolution And the Enlightenment: And the Enlightenment:

The Emergence of the The Emergence of the Critical World- Critical World-

ViewViewMax Bernbeck, Tim Mauss, and Jacob Sekins

The Scientific Revolution The Scientific Revolution

Causes of the Scientific Causes of the Scientific RevolutionRevolution

““[…]standing on the shoulders of […]standing on the shoulders of Giants.”Giants.”

Medieval Europe maintained an underrated university system, even throughout the intellectually oppressive “Dark Ages”

Professors trained professionals (lawyers, doctors, etc.) Philosophy emerged as a viable field of study produced an

environment of free expression and critical thinking

A Community of ScholarsA Community of Scholars

Philosophy

Mathematics Physics Astronomy

“Community of scholars”: as support for scientific research developed, fields

became more specified and students were trained accordingly.

Renaissance and ExplorationRenaissance and Exploration

Access to ancient scientific works desire to resolve incongruities between classical and “modern” theories

Inadequacies in naval technology during Age of Exploration government-commissioned projects to improve navigational tools increased value placed on a scientific education

Gresham CollegeImproved tools easier to objectively study

the elements that compose the universe

Political InfluencesPolitical Influences

Lack of unifying religious authority in the Low Countries and England support for the study of “neutral questions”

Politics & Geography Politics & Geography

Success of scientific research depended on depth of religious tradition

Galileo was tried by a Papal tribunal in FlorenceNewton was lauded as a hero and celebrity in England

• Traditionally Catholic countries (Italian city-states, Spain, France, etc.) were far less “revolutionary”

• Comparatively “liberal” countries with no central religious figures proceeded more quickly

Intellectual Intellectual DevelopmentsDevelopments

Until 1500—based on Aristotle crystal sphere is basis of astronomy (beyond the tenth was heaven)

Introduction of the scientific method (pioneered by Descartes)

Logic over blind faith

Major ThinkersMajor Thinkers

Newton: Gravity, Laws of Universal Gravitation, physics, wrote Principia in 1687

Galileo Galilei: Gravity test, Law of Inertia, used experimental method, many astronomical advances church attempted to silence him (Dialogue on Two Chief Systems of the World-1632)

Copernicus: Heliocentricity, used Ptolemy’s telescope, but discovered flaw in Ptolemaic system of thought

Tycho Brahe: Collected data to deny Copernicus, died, and Kepler (student) eventually used extensive data to confirm Copernican model

More Thinkers…More Thinkers…

Sir Francis Bacon: Scientific method (Theory Experiment Conclusions (empirically testable)

Descartes: Doubt everything Cartesian dualism

TechnologyTechnology

Mathematics used to create accurate sea charts

New instruments: telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope, air pump better able to observe the world

Applied theory leads to applied technology close link to theoretical science

EconomicsEconomics

Research largely sponsored by monarchs King of Portugal (1484) commissioned naval exploration creation of a fixed longitude

Trading companies turn to science and invest in colleges

Incorporation of Protestantism into pioneer capitalism

Improvements in navigation –> Facilitation of overseas trade leading merchants enriched

The Enlightenment The Enlightenment

Causes of the Causes of the EnlightenmentEnlightenment

Considered by many as a natural extension of the Scientific Revolution (it gained momentum for the same reasons)

Newton’s Principia (1713) + Death of Louis XIV (1715)

Motivation to explore mathematical as well as socio-

political theories

Politics & GeographyPolitics & Geography

John LockeJohn Locke

Second Treatise of Civil Government (1689) = Humans are a “tabula rasa” impressionability means that government should protect their liberties and uphold justice

Social ills can be solved by a responsible, attentive government citizens not corrupted or confused

French Response French Response

Resorted to censorship in an effort to protect the dying process of absolutism

Central authorities became especially desperate after the death of the “Sun King”

Montesquieu v. VoltaireMontesquieu v. Voltaire

Spirit of Laws = comprehensive study of monarchs and despots focused on the conditions that produce tyranny, and those that would prevent it

Separation of power: process by which the upper middle class checks the power of the ruling authority

“Parlements” assist this process (basis for much of American and French constitutions)

Absolute monarchs are acceptable if they protect inherent human liberties

Abused by the legal system at a young age appealed for fairer institutions, but not replacement of them (reform over revolution)

Age of Louis XIV (1751) = portrayal of the strengths and benefits of absolutism

Absolute monarchs create or worsen conditions that contribute to tyranny and injustice

Rousseau Rousseau

Rationalism and reason imprison the soul by overwhelming it with “cold intellect”

Government and societal institutions by nature diminish human spontaneity

Social Contract (1762)= sovereign power removed from the monarch and entrusted to the people, since the activities of government should reflect their needs

“General will” is not necessarily the demands of the majority, but rather what is considered beneficial to society as it’s perceived by the minority

Enlightened Despots Enlightened Despots

Catherine the Great of Russia: Ignored by husband solace in Voltaire “imported” enlightened culture (improved education, lessened torture, offered limited religious tolerance, localized nobility’s control of serfs after Pugachev’s Rebellion, defeated Turks, partitioned Poland)

Frederick the Great of Prussia: Overbearing father militaristic nature compensated by indulging in Enlightenment culture

◦ Recognized that liberalizing would strengthen the potential of the state religious freedom, freedom to publish, streamlined legal system, outlawed torture, improved schools

The Austrian Habsburgs: ◦ Maria Theresa: limited papal influence, reorganized and strengthened the

central bureaucracy, reduced power of lords over serfs and tennant farmers◦ Joseph II: Abolished serfdom, further controlled Catholic Church’s influence,

granted religious tolerance to Jews and Protestants

EconomicsEconomics

Adam Smith- On the Wealth of Nations (1776)• Moved away from mercantilism to capitalist

economies• Philosophes tried to influence social and

economic elites• Market for books grew dramatically• Illegal book trade Scandalous subjects

Intellectual Intellectual DevelopmentsDevelopments

Thinkers/ IdeasThinkers/ Ideas

NationalismParlors/SalonsFundamental rights –Locke Voltaire—study scientific discoveries,

popularize English science and government; expounded need for good monarch to protect the weak

Published Encyclopedia (1751)—Diderot + Alembert- controversial topics

……More Thinkers/ IdeasMore Thinkers/ Ideas

Rousseau –belief in General Will, Social Contract

Baron von Holbach—System of Nature; champion of Deism

Scientific method applied to everyday life rationalism

Bernard de Fontenelle (Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds)

Science conflicted with Religion based on Enlightenment

ArtArt

Artistic StylesArtistic Styles

1650 1850

Baroque: Very Detailed/

Complicated

Neoclassical: Heavily

influenced by Greek/Roman art

Romantic: Feelings

and nature

1750

ArchitectureArchitecture

Rococo: Very Ornate, frilly

Neoclassicism: Geometric styles and patterns

ReligionReligion

Church Loses InfluenceChurch Loses Influence

Great Schism + protestant reformation = People question religious authority

So many new churches formed, Europe became divided based on religion

Deism – God is like a clock maker who created the universe, but doesn’t meddle in its everyday operation

Social Consequences Social Consequences

PhilosophesPhilosophes

Philosophes= Well educated upper middle class were able to gain influence with through public forums like the Salon, and growing universities

Increased literacy as philosophes published their ideas

Middle and lower classes have easier access to higher education reform movements

Women, like Mary Wollstonecraft, reached a higher standing due to easier access to education.

Enlightened DespotsEnlightened Despots

Political leaders influenced by Enlightenment ideas social reform

Prussia and Austria abolished serfdom and allowed a higher degree of religious toleration

Russia enacted legal reform that lightened severe punishments

The SalonThe Salon

Acted as a private meeting place for enlightenment thinkers

Allowed ideas to develop and spread relatively quickly between thinkers

Often run by women like Mme. Geoffrin who, as host, had control of which topics were discussed