unit i theories of motivation
TRANSCRIPT
Motivation at Work
Definition of Motivation
Motivation - the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior
3 Groups of Motivational Theories
• Internal– Suggest that variables within the individual give rise to
motivation and behavior– Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
• Process– Emphasize the nature of the interaction between the
individual and the environment– Example: Expectancy theory
• External– Focus on environmental elements to explain behavior– Example: Two-factor theory
Early Philosophers of Motivational Theories
• Max Weber—work contributes to salvation; Protestant work ethic
• Sigmund Freud—delve into the unconscious mind to better understand a person’s motives and needs
• Adam Smith—“enlightened” self-interest; that which is in the best interest and benefit to the individual and to other people
• Frederick Taylor—founder of scientific management; emphasized cooperation between management and labor to enlarge company profits
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological
Safety & Security
Love (Social)
Esteem
SA
Lowest
to hi
ghest
orde
r
Motivational Theories X & Y
Physiological
Safety & Security
Love (Social)
Esteem
SA Theory Y - a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by higher order needsTheory X - a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by lower order needs
McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory X
• Naturally indolent• Lack ambition, dislike
responsibility, and prefer to be led
• Inherently self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs
• Naturally resistant to change• Gullible, not bright, ready dupes
McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on
Theory Y• Experiences in organizations result in passive
and resistant behaviors; they are not inherent• Motivation, development potential, capacity
for assuming responsibility, readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals are present in people
• Management’s task—arrange conditions and operational methods so people can achieve their own goals by directing efforts to organizational goals
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Physiological
Safety & Security
Love (Social)
Esteem
SA
Existence
Relatedness
Growth
McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Achievement
Need for Achievement - a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns individuals’ issues of excellence, competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficulties
McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Power
Need for Power - a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to make an impact on others, influence others, change people or events, and make a difference in life
McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Affiliation
Need for Affiliation - a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to establish and maintain warm, close, intimate relationships with other people
Self-actualization
3 Motivational Need Theories
Maslow Alderfer McClelland
HigherOrderNeeds
LowerOrderNeeds
Esteem selfinterpersonal
Safety & Security interpersonal
physical
Need for Achievement
Need for Power
Relatedness Need for Affiliation
Existence
Growth
Belongingness(social & love)
Physiological
Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHygiene Factor - work condition related to
dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain– maintenance factor– contributes to employee’s feeling not
dissatisfied– contributes to absence of complaints
Motivation Factor - work condition related to the satisfaction of the need for psychological growth– job enrichment– leads to superior performance & effort
Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
Satisfaction Dissatisfaction
Traditional view
Satisfaction No satisfaction
Herzberg's view
No dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction
Hygiene Factors
Motivators
Motivation–Hygiene Theory of Motivation
Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction
• Company policy & administration
• Supervision• Interpersonal relations• Working conditions• Salary• Status• Security
• Achievement• Achievement recognition • Work itself• Responsibility• Advancement• Growth
• Salary?
Motivation factors increase job satisfaction
Dissatisfactionand
demotivation
Not dissatisfiedbut
not motivated
Positivesatisfaction
and motivation
Hygiene Factors
•Company policies•Quality of supervision•Relations with others•Personal life•Rate of pay•Job security•Working conditions
Motivational Factors
•Achievement•Career advancement•Personal growth•Job interest•Recognition•Responsibility
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Motivation-Hygiene Combinations
High M Low M
High H high motivation few complaints
low motivation few complaints
Low H high motivation many complaints
low motivation many complaints
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)
Needs TheoriesMaslow Herzberg
Hygiene
Motivators
Factors
Social
Safety
Physiological
Self-Actualisation
Esteem
Adams’s Theory of Inequity
Inequity - the situation in which a person perceives he or she is receiving less than he or she is giving, or is giving less than he or she is receiving
Motivational Theory of Social Exchange
Equity Outcomes = Outcomes Inputs Inputs
Negative Outcomes < Outcomes Inequity Inputs Inputs
Positive Outcomes > Outcomes Inequity Inputs Inputs
Person Comparison other
Strategies for Resolution of Inequity
• Alter the person’s outcomes• Alter the person’s inputs• Alter the comparison other’s outputs• Alter the comparison other’s inputs• Change who is used as a comparison
other• Rationalize the inequity• Leave the organizational situation
New Perspectives on Equity Theory
Equity Sensitive
I prefer an equity ratio equal to that of my comparison other
New Perspectives on Equity Theory
Benevolent I am comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of my comparison other
New Perspectives on Equity Theory
Entitled
I am comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of my comparison other
Expectancy Theory of Motivation: Key Constructs
Valence - value or importance placed on a particular reward
Expectancy - belief that effort leads to performance
Instrumentality - belief that performance is related to rewards
Prentice Hall, 2001 Chapter 6 27
Expectancy Theory(Vroom)
3. Rewards-Personal goals relationship = Valence
1. Effort-Performance relationship = Expectancy
2. Performance-Rewards relationship = Instrumentality
IndividualEffort
IndividualPerformance
PersonalGoals
OrganisationalRewards
1 2
3
Expectancy Model of Motivation
Performance RewardEffortEffort
Perceived effort–performance probability
Perceived value of reward
Perceived performance– reward probability
“If I work hard,will I get the jobdone?”
“What rewardswill I get when the job is well done?”
“What rewardsdo I value?”
How Expectancy Theory Works
Expectancy
Effort - Performance Link
E=0
No matter how much effort you put in, probably not possible
to memorise the text in 24 hours
Instrumentality
Performance - Rewards Link
I=0
Your tutor does not looklike someone who has £1 million
Valence
Rewards - Personal Goals Link
V=1
There are a lot of wonderful things you could do with £1 million
Your tutor offers you £1 million if you memorise the textbook by tomorrow morning.
Conclusion: Though you value the reward, you will not be motivated to do this task.
3 Causes of Motivational Problems
• Belief that effort will not result in performance
• Belief that performance will not result in rewards
• The value a person places on, or the preference a person has for, certain rewards
• The path-goal theory, also known as the path-goal theory The path-goal theory, also known as the path-goal theory of leader effectiveness or the path-goal model was of leader effectiveness or the path-goal model was developed by Robert House, an Ohio State University developed by Robert House, an Ohio State University graduate, in 1971 and revised in 1996.graduate, in 1971 and revised in 1996.
• The theory was inspired by the work of Martin G. The theory was inspired by the work of Martin G. Evans (1970).Evans (1970).
• The path-goal theory was also influenced by The path-goal theory was also influenced by the expectancy theory of motivation developed by Victor the expectancy theory of motivation developed by Victor Vroom in 1964Vroom in 1964
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Origins of Path-Goal Theory
• The path goal leadership theory is a model that tries to understand the work motivation of every individual.
• It states the work motivation of any individual is dependent on his/her assessment on:1. Whether the effort would lead to good performance2. The probability of a reward as a result of the good performance3. The value of this reward
• The Path-Goal Leadership Theory states that by clarifying the path to achieving good performance and removing pitfalls and enhancing personal satisfaction for the job, a leader is able to effective motivate his subordinate in work.
• Directive behavior Directive behavior lets subordinates know what tasks need lets subordinates know what tasks need to be performed and how they should be performed.to be performed and how they should be performed.
• Supportive behavior Supportive behavior lets subordinates know that their leader lets subordinates know that their leader cares about their well-being and is looking out for them.cares about their well-being and is looking out for them.
• Participative behavior Participative behavior enables subordinates to be involved enables subordinates to be involved in making decisions that affect them.in making decisions that affect them.
• Achievement-oriented behavior Achievement-oriented behavior pushes subordinates to do pushes subordinates to do their best. Includes setting difficult goals for followers, their best. Includes setting difficult goals for followers, expecting high performance, and expressing confidence.expecting high performance, and expressing confidence.
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Goal Setting
GoalsSpecificDifficultAccepted
Effects on PersonDirects attention
EnergisesEncourages persistency
New strategies developed
Feedback
Performance
Self-Motivation
• Self-fulfilment and satisfaction• Difficult goals lead to higher performance• Motivation to act depends on the
attractiveness of the outcome
Moral Maturity
Moral Maturity - the measure of a person’s cognitive moral development
Morally mature people behave and act
based on universal ethical principles.
Morally immature people behave and act based on egocentric
motivations.
Begin with the end in mind• What are your talents?• What is your ultimate career goal?• What can you achieve in 2 years?• What are your personal goals?