week 4_social and cultural dimensions

7/25/2019 Week 4_Social and Cultural Dimensions

1/77

Engineering in a social co

By its very nature engineering is closely rela

society and human behavior. Every product

construction used by modern society are infl

engineering design. Engineering design is a

powerful tool to make changes to environme

and economies, and its application brings wi

great respons ty.


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Engineering in a social co

Many Engineering Institutions have establisof practice and codes of ethics to guide mem

inform the public at large. Engineering proje

subject to controversy. Examples from diffe

engineering disciplines include the developm

nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam, th

and use of Sports Utility Vehicles and the ex

oil. In response, some western engineering c

have enacted serious Corporate and Social

Responsibilitypolicies.


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Engineering in a social con

Engineering is a key driver of human develo

-engineering capacity which results in many

infrastructure without outside aid.

Development Goals requires the achieveme

infrastructure and sustainable technological


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Engineering in a social con

All overseas development and relief NGOs

disaster and development scenarios. A numb

directly for the good of mankind:

Engineers Against Poverty

Engineers for a Sustainable World


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Cultural presence of Engine

Engineering is a well respected profession. F

trusted professions.

dry, uninteresting field inpopular culture(co

of ideas,perspectives, attitudes, images and

consensus within the mainstream of a given


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One difficulty in increasing public awarenes

ordinary life, do not ever have any personal

work every day. By contrast, it is common t

and, occasionally, even a lawyer.

-

children in the 1950s were brought up with

' '

were the Brunels, the Stephensons, Telford


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Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806-1859)was best

the creation of the Great Western Railway, a series steamships, including the first propeller-driven tran

steamship, and numerous important bridges and tun

es gns revo u on se pu c ranspor an mo ern

engineering.

George Stephenson (1781 1848) was an English

engineerand mechanical engineerwho built the fir

railway line in the world to use steam locomotives

known as the "Father of Railways".

Thomas Telford (1757 - 1834) was a stonemason

and civil en ineerand a noted road,brid e and can


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In science fiction engineers are often portray

understand the overwhelming future techno

Forge, Miles O'Brien, B'Elanna Torres, and

Occasionally, engineers may be recognized

" "--

little finger of the dominant hand. This tradi

Engineeras a symbol of pride and obligatio


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Some years later in 1972 this practice wa

.

of the US Order of the Engineeraccept th

engineering.

ro ess ona ng neers name may e by thepost-nominal letters PE or P.Eng i

Amer ca. In muc o Europe a pro ess on

engineer is denoted by the letters IR, whi

UK and much of the Commonwealth theChartered Engineerapplies and is denote

letters CEng.


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Cultural and Social Dimens

How is the work of engineers shaping the

How can we accomplish engineering soc

responsibility nowadays and in the longe


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Reduction of poverty

Improvement in health

Rise of living standard

Invention and discoveries

Sustainable development


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ng neer ng oc a espon

What do we mean by this? You h

heard of cor orate social res ons

that is how organisations take int

,impacts of the way they operate.

s engineers, we can apply simil

precautionar principles.


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ng neer ng oc a espon

There is an opportunity, and indeed

obligation, for us to set a standard o

engineering design that benefits the

environment in both the lon and thterm.

change, water shortages and energ

about the overall sustainability of ou


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A Res onse to Climate C In response to climate change, go

impacts associated to the greenho

business or production cycle. Give

c ma e c ange s a wor w ephenomenon, the concept of carbo

neutrality is based on the principle

GHG emissions reduction achieve

elsewhere has the same positive ereduction made locall .


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Motives to develop a robust corpo

roduct carbon-neutral strate m

based on one or more of these el

.assigning costs to carbon emissio

company can prepare or a uture

constrained econom in which G

emissions are regulated and/or ta


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Financial. Effectively managing G

emissions can hel com anies e

long-term value by cutting costs,

, .carbon neutral can be a central p

establish a framework for identify

pursuing cost-effective emissionsreduction and savin s o ortuniti


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Marketing. Demonstrating enviroea ers p on t e corporate, pro

service level can create strong br

presence, increase customer loya

public. First movers in the area of

neu ra y are e y o ga n an e g

business-as-usual competitors, p

as environmental awareness ando inion on climate chan e rows


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Corporate Social Responsibiliteutra z ng em ss ons s a

way to show stakeholders (e.g.,

customers, shareholders, commu

company is taking responsibility f

By going carbon neutral, a firm ca

s gn can pos ve mpac on worclimate.


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When releasin GHG emissions iatmosphere, a company can effe

purchasing carbon offsets.

Offsets are emissions reductions

b ro ects elsewhere such as en

efficiency investments, wind farm

.reductions, a firms emissions lev

e r ne c ma e mpac are re uc


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Carbon offsets

Offset urchases will form the finacomponent of a carbon neutral pr

the organization carbon footprint,

ose re a e o n erna a a emegreen power purchases.


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Carbon Neutralit

variety of different policies, ranging

. .Government department) to the pla

.


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Socialengineering akeyele

sustainableengineerin


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Social

engineering

can

be

seen

as

methodical

app

overcome

opposition

against

a

project. Factual

co

bemetbyrationalarguments emotionalconce

bedealtwithonemotionallevel.

Whatkindofconcernsdopeoplehave?

Concernoflosingmoney

Concern

of

personal

safety

and

health

Concernofhavinganykindofdisadvantage

Concern

of

decrease

of

living

condition Concern

of

any

unexpected

alteration

in

their

Concernedtobetricked

Source:http://www.esha.be/fileadmin/esha_files/documents/SHERPA/Repo


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Socialengineeringmeansaccompan

technicalandeconomicaspectswith

varietyofsocialaspects.

Social

engineering

will

never

stand

aNecessarilyitneedsaprojecttodea

finaltargetisthefactualimplement

idea.



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Public

Involvement

From a general point of view the to identify who is really involved by the what are the interests. Generally it is distinguish between local inhabitants, wprotect their own interest, the local e

who are interested in working opportresearch organizations and/or universitiebe involved from a scientific point offinally representatives of the governmenongovernmental organizations. Each

bodies mentioned is animated by differinterest, which should be firstly ideprecisely defined.



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Public

Involvement



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Public

Involvement



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Public

InvolvementHow is it possible to divulge the scientific

information to common people? For sure ther

documents, reviews and summaries explaining in

the background and the fundamental aspects of th

direct involvement of people is a process which c

out effectively through a series of informational

public hearings. During these meetings it is possib

population in the decision making process. Parti

described, much more than giving information a

significant influence on the engineering contents o

The engineer should not principally resist other ide

job to evaluate new ideas and to check whethe

implemented, modified or rejected.



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in China


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Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-city:A Model Sustainable City

Presentation for Australian Mission1 March 2011

JonathanSenior MEconomi


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Page 27th Aug. 09Presentation

Needs for SustainableDevelopment in China


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Page 3

In 20 years, China's citiadded 350 mil lion peoplthe entire population of States today or 2 New Y

The countrys urban po

reach 926 mil lion by 202bill ion by 2030

As part of the global deaclimate change, China hslash its greenhouse emper unit of economic ouby 2020

Urban solutions create new global businesses

Sustainable Urban Development is The


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Page 4

China by 2025:

Build 900 to 1,100 gigawattproduction capacity

Pave five bill ion squa

Lay 28,000 kilometers

Develop 20,000 to 50,00

Growing urban demands for a better life

Sustainable Urban Development is The
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Site Selection

The Chinese Government set two criteria for the location of the Ec

-

(b) should be located in an area facing water shortage.Four possibl e locations were identified:

(1) Baotou (Inner Mongolia) (2) Tangshan (Hebei province), (3) Tia

(4) Urumqi (Xinji ang).

Source:http://www.tianjinecocity.gov.sg/bg_intro.htm


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Sino-Singapore TianjinEco-City in the Making


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Page 6

Tianjin Eco-City

Agreement between Premier Wen Jiabao and SeniorMinister Goh Chok Tong on 2nd flagship bilateral

project after Suzhou Industrial Park

Determination of both countries to respond to the

needs of sustainable development

Key focus is to be replicable, scalable, practicable

Tianjin chosen as location

Total Land Area:

~ 30 sq km

Start-up Area:

~ 4 sq km

Target Population:350,000

Estimated no of homes:110,000

Resid GFA: 4.4 mil sqm Resid GFA:2.9 mil sqm

Flagship bilateral project between China &Singapore that draws on nationalresources


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Page 7

Government Leadership and CommitmentEco-City has highest level of attention and involvement

Joint Steering Council on Eco-City

(Deputy Prime Minister Level)

Chaired by PRC Vice-Premier Wang Qishan and Singapore Deputy Prime Min

Joint Working Committee on Eco-City

(Ministerial Level)Chaired by PRC Minister for Housing and Urban-Rural Development and Singapore

Lead Ministries assigned to oversee Eco-City projeMinistry for Housing and Urban-Rural Devt (China) and Ministry of National Deve

Strong Involvement of Local Governments and other Governm

Tianjin Municipal Government TBNA Government Eco-City Administrative Committee


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Page 8

Commercially Driven Approach

Singapore Consortium Chinese Con

Eco-City (JV)

Chin

Developme

Tianjin TEDA I

Holdings

Invest

Keppel Group

Singbridge

50% 5

Registered Capital: RMB 4bn

10%

90%


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Page 9

Bohai Rim Region Citius, Altius, FortThird economic growth pole of China, economic cente

China


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Page 10

Bohai Rim

Region

Yangtze River

Delta

Pearl River Delta

Areas covered Beijing, Tianjin,

Hebei, Liaoning,

Shandong

Shanghai,

Zhejiang,

Jiangsu

Guangzhou,

Shenzhen, Zhuhai,

Foshan, Jiangmen,

Dongguan,

Zhongshan,

Huizhou, Zhaoqing

opulation (million) 225.7 85.3 42.3

and area (km2) 521,800 50,000 41,698

009 GDP

RMB billion

9,000 -10,000 7,179 3,210

Region GDP as a total

ercentage of Chinas

GDP

30%

(Estimated to be

over 30% in

2010)

21.4% 9.6%

Bohai Rim Region Citius, Altius, Fortius

Bohai Rim leading the way First inpop size, land area and GDP


41/77

Page 11

Total investment in f ixed assets in TBNA increasing since 2005

Growth rate of investment in TBNA has been higher than China ansince 2006

Tianjin and TBNAs GDP consistently above Chinas average

TBNA and Tianjin outperform China

Tianjin & TBNA the Heart of Bohai


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Page 12

Economic sea region, a

city , the eco

North of Chi

Tianjin ach

rate in 2010

Home to TArea (TBNA

One of the highest prof

overseas inv

TBNA achirate in 2010

Tianjins vibrant economy

SinoSingapore

TianjinEcoCity

Choosing the Right Site to PioneerEco-City Development


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Page 13

Choosing the Right Site to Pioneer Eco-City D

Beijing

Beijing-T

ianjinHighw

ay

Beijing-Tianjin-TangguHighway

Centr

alBoulev

a r

Jinhan semi-expressway

Tanghan

Road

Hanbei Ro

Tianjin

Binhai New

Train travel in China redefined

at 350 km/hr


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Page 14

Choosing the Right Site to PioneerEco-City Development

To Date, more than 200 projects established by

over 120 Fortune 500 Companies In TBNA


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Page 15

Master Plan sets out the land uses

for the various land parcels.

Eco City

Land Area 30 sq km

Resid GFA 14.4 mil sqm

Population 350,000

Startup Area (SUA)

Land Area 4 sq km

Resid GFA 2.9 mil sqm

Population 85,000

SUA to be completed in 3-5 yrs, the

rest in 10-15 yrs.

Master Plan


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Page 16

Development Role

Eco City Builder

Development of Road aWater Pipes Infrastruct

Development of Busine

Development of Public

Development of CommResidential projects


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Page 17

3. 100% potable tap water20. 50% non-traditionalresource

7. 100%greenbuilding

18. >20% publichousing provision22. >50%employment housingequilibrium index

1130% green trips by 2013- >90% green trips by 2020

TianjinKPIs

21. >50nos researches/engineers per 10000labor force

17. 100%coverage

2.

10.


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Development Update


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Page 19

Chinese Consortium

Sing

TECID

Developing a place call homeInternationally renowned developers secured in the las

invested a total of about RMB 55 bil lion


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Page 20

Waterfront lifestyle

Eco-lifestyQing Tuo Zi Entertainment hub

of SUA

Water-based activities

Residential & Commercial DevelopmenThe best ideas coming online


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Page 21

Eco Public Housing

Focus on energy efficiency 100% green buildings (1 star orLEED entry level

A living environment that fosterscommunity spirit and social

harmony

Surbana as master-planner tobring in Singapore experience

1st Phase: 500 units (PH) &

223 units (RH)

First of its kind green public housing


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Page 22

GEMS World Academy at Plot 2

Construction start in 1H 2010

Planned total student population: 2190

Provide for N-Yr 13, (i.e. age group 4yrs-19yrs old, Kinder, Elementary, HighSchool and 6th Form)

Target to achieve GBES Silver Award

GEMS International School

Community Development


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Page 23

Sanctuary for

Land Area 5.9 ha Plot Ratio 1.6

Residential GFA

Residential Land A

Hospi tal GFA 35

Hospital Land Are

Community DevelopmentElderly Apartments and Hospital at Plot 12b


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Page 24

World Class University Campus

Intention: To set up a modern and forward looking world cla

campus to supply quality pool of graduates and professiona

Eco-city and the region

Planning considerations: Committed to engage and tackle th

environmental issues of our times by developing strengths i

technology, eco-financing, planning and designing, R&D.


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Page 25

Existing Nankai Campus in Tianjin Located at Nankai Fourth Road Occupies some 7.67 ha of land, GFA of 49,000 sqm

Comprises a High School and an InternationalSchool Dept

Total enrolment of about 2,000 students with morethan 140 teachers for various grades

Nankai School is recognized as the best middleschool in Tianjin.

Site

Nankai Branch School in Eco-City


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Aerial view of Tianjin Eco-city site in 2007, 201

Source:http://www.tianjinecocity.gov.sg/bg_intro.htm


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Economic Positioning andKey Economic Development Platforms


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Page 27

Our Targeted Industry Cl

Economic

Clusters

Economic

Clusters

LOHAS

Clean Energy

Clean WaterGreen

Buildings

GreenTransport

Waste & EnvtManagement

Eco Buil t: The busin

industrial park will bekey eco technologiesbenchmark will be on

Eco & Urban Solut ioWater & WastewaterTreatment, Green Bu

Transport

Eco-friendly Hi-techSupplementary eco-findustries such as SoDevelopment & IT IndGaming, Web Design


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Page 28

ECO-CITY INDUS

CLUS

DISTRIB

Eco Industrial Park (Mf

industries)

Prototype production Final assembly Logistics

Eco Business Park(R&D for eco-industr

Clean energy Green building Green transport IT/BPO

National Animation C

ICT IDM Media School


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Page 29

Industrial C

Green Bui

Clean Ene

Green Tra

Clean Wat

Waste Man

Environme

Logistics Warehous

Distributio

-GBES certi f

inspired surr

for boosting

- Full spectruready-built , c

solutions

-High quality

spaces with

optimized de

-Modern neig

and workers

Eco-Industrial Park

Economic Development
http://www.pawater.com.sg/main.htmhttp://www.pawater.com.sg/main.htmhttp://www.pawater.com.sg/main.htm


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Page 30

Plug-and-Pla

GBES certi fie Energy-, wat

buildings Modular builcharacter and

Adoption of E

and >5% rene

consumption

Completion

Ready-Built Factory



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Page 31

- Unique integrate

eco-inspired ambi

- Conducive for R&creative talent

-Work-Play elemen

community lifesty

-Ecologically sust

features and LEED

Certification

Eco-Business Park

Clusters

Research & Dev Innovation & Inc

Testing & Certif

BPO/ITO

Regional Headq

Data Centers

Software Develo Training and Ed

Multi -media or A

Other high-value


( )

SITOJiaHua

(Beijing)

InvestmentCo.,

Ltd
http://www.thelightisgreen.com/Philips%20logo.jpg


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Page 32

Pre-built modulaease and f lexibilit

seeking fast start

Unique green buartistic and exube

Inspiring workinconducive to rese

knowledge-intens

Lushly landscapintegration of a w

and recreational a

Ready-Built Offices



64/77THE ARUP JOURNAL 1/2003 3

Introduction

The statistics on world poverty are frightening. Close to half theworlds 6bn people live on less than US$2 a day; conversely1% of the population has an income equal to that of the entirebottom 57%1. But poverty is not only about lack of wealth inmonetary terms; it also implies the denial of various choicesand opportunities basic to human development. These includethe ability to lead a long, creative and healthy life, to acquireknowledge, to have freedom, dignity, self-respect and respectfor others, and to have access to the resources needed for a

decent standard of living.2

Community infrastructure is key to alleviating poverty andthus engineers have an essential role to play. Without readyaccess to clean water and sanitation, productivity is severelyreduced through illness and time spent in water collection.Without roads, the poor are unable to sell their goods atmarket. Basic infrastructure is not a luxury that can wait forbetter economic times, but a precondition for creating them,and its provision is an urgent and ongoing requirement.The Economisthas observed that over the past 50 yearsrich nations have given US$1 trillion in aid to poor ones. Thisstupendous sum has failed spectacularly to improve the lot ofits intended beneficiaries. Poor countries that receive lots of aiddo no better, on average, than those that receive very little3.Poverty is thus not being ignored, but alleviation strategiesmust be more effective for relief to be achieved.

The origins of povertyTo begin solving poverty, its origins must be clearly understood.The basic causes are:

lack of access to safe water and sanitation

lack of facilities for adequate health care

lack of access to educational opportunities

shortage of adequate nutrition

lack of adequately paid employment

inadequate or expensive transport facilities

limited or expensive power supplies.

Urban and rural poverty generally have different causes, thoughnot mutually exclusive. The main causes of urban poverty are

likely to be: lack of adequate income or no income, due to

underemployment or unemployment

inadequate housing, sanitation, and water supply

limited opportunities for education

inadequate or expensive transport facilities.

Poor health and lack of access to education tend to minimizeskills, compounding the problems of un- or underemployment,leading to reduction of income-earning capacity.

The predominant causes of rural poverty are likely to be:

lack of access to health care and education

inadequate shelter, sanitation, and water supply

lack of access to markets for agricultural products limited opportunity to earn income

inadequate or expensive transport facilities

no access to power and telecommunications facilities.

Poverty in rural areas tends to be more widespread and moreintense than in urban areas, because:

Employment opportunities are more limited.

Access to a range of key facilities is much reduced.

Many households are headed by women often due to abandonment of families by the males,with commensurate reduction in income.

Sanitation and water supply deficiencies are moreintense, leading to ill health.

The trend in developing countries worldwide - wherebymale family members gravitate to urban areas in search of

employment - often reduces the rural familys ability to survivein a subsistence economy.

Poverty alleviation strategies

Historically, poverty alleviation strategies have focused on directintervention to provide facilities that are lacking. Investments byinternational lending agencies over the past two to threedecades have concentrated on solutions to deficiencies ininfrastructure that are usually expensive, often with apparentlylimited thought to ongoing operation and maintenance. Localobservers in several recipient countries, and other stakeholders,have commented on inadequacies in the implemented projectsand programmes:

lack of planning for ongoing operationand maintenance of the facilities

limited attention to the development

of a sense of ownership by the local community

political interference and intervention

allocation of funds to countries withouta poverty alleviation strategy of their own

corruption, leading to ineffectiveness of investment.

At the recent Rio+10 Sustainability Summit, both the UnitedNations and the World Bank called for alleviation strategiesinvolving no more hardware, noting that major investmentsover the last 20-30 years in water infrastructure schemes hadoften failed to benefit the people at whom they were aimed.

This is because most facilities involving technology are generallyabandoned within two years, as revenue streams are insufficientto pay for repairs and maintenance and because of the lack oflocal skills to carry out repairs. Corruption is also often a barrier.

In agreeing to a target to halve the number of people withoutsanitation globally by 2020, the Summit noted that emphasisshould be on smaller-scale solutions suited to local capabilities,understanding and skills. The role of engineers in deliveringinfrastructure schemes needs to change significantly.

Again over the last 20-30 years, experience with implementinglarge-scale infrastructure improvement projects has led toan improved understanding of the conditions necessary forsustainable reduction in poverty levels:

The local community must be empoweredby the decision-making process.

The local community must be involved inongoing operation and maintenance.

National and regional governments must also beinvolved in the project.

Project selection must favour those projectsthat lead to economic growth.

Strength of the market economy is a prerequisiteto economic growth.

Close involvement of the local community will improvethe chances of project success; it needs to be owned.

Poverty alleviation requires interventions that involveconsiderable social and cultural change. Poverty has manyaspects, and solutions require more than a technical orengineering basis. Provision of infrastructure alone will notalleviate poverty, without access to that infrastructure.

We can ask such questions as:

What good is a road if there is no means of transport?

What good is a latrine if it is not being used?

What good is a water supply system if it is in disrepair?

In developing strategies to alleviate poverty, we must takeaccount of and address these wider issues.

Povertyalleviation:the role of

the engineerDavid Singleton

This article is anedited version ofthe Fourth Brunel

InternationalLecture 2002/03,given under theauspices of the

Institution of CivilEngineers, by

David Singleton,Chairman of

Arup Australasia.

1a & b. Problem and solution(see Case study 2, p5).


65/77THE ARUP JOURNAL 1/2003

Sound engineering solutions to poverty alleviation

Engineering solutions are integral to mitigating poverty;however, engineering is not the sole contributor to successfulpoverty alleviation programmes, which also entail attention tosocial, economic, and political influences. Sustainableengineering will be achieved when the engineering solutionsadopted take into account their use of natural resources.Optimum solutions will have a positive or neutral impact onnatural resource consumption. Unsound engineering solutions,by comparison, may leave the environment depleted andsociety poorer over time.

Life-cycle engineering takes into account the operationaland maintenance cost of the engineering solutions proposed,such that the completed projects have effective and affordableoperational and maintenance regimes.

Empowered engineering will take into account the capabilitiesof the local community, particularly its engineering and technicalprofessions. Where possible, the solutions developed willinvolve local professional and technical staff and will establishan on-going engineering and operational resource.

Appropriate engineering will consider various options thatmeet the engineering needs of the project and may adopttechniques of labour-based construction, which differssignificantly from labour-intensive construction. The latterbasically substitutes men for machines, eg constructing aconcrete-framed building where the concrete is mixed byhand without a mechanical mixer. Labour-based construction,by contrast, aims to change the technology involved to whatis appropriate for manual labour, eg eliminating the concreteframe and building the structure of load-bearing masonry.Labour-based construction has been shown to comparefavourably with plant-based construction4. In addition, it

facilitates knowledge transfer, creates jobs, encouragesprivate enterprise, creates ownership, and may reduce cost.

The following five case studies illustrate engineeringapplications to poverty mitigation programmes andidentify the associated social, economic, and politicalactions put in place.

Each shows sound and appropriate engineering.

Case study 1:Australian remote Aboriginal communities

Arup has undertaken many projects across the globeaddressing the lack of access to basic infrastructure.For example, we have extensive involvement in water

supply and sanitation projects in Botswana5, and inhealth, housing, and community infrastructure projectsfor indigenous communities throughout Australia6.

Project background

The Infrastructure Operation and Maintenance Project for theAboriginal Co-ordinating Council (ACC) commenced in 1999,with a budget of A$6M and a planned duration of three years.The project was instigated in response to the challenges facedin Queenslands remote indigenous communities in developingand maintaining infrastructure. Limited recurrent funds and thedifficulties in acquiring appropriate technical and managementskills in remote communities resulted in low infrastructurelifecycles, and thus lower standards of living and poor health.

Project details

This pilot project was implemented in six remote communitiesin Queensland. It was a grassroots initiative for indigenouscommunities that aimed to:

improve the health and wellbeingof their people

develop and support a culture ofasset management

protect investment of capital fundsin their infrastructure.

Arup was appointed as project co-ordinator to oversee theproject and liaise with communities, funding and trainingagencies. The firms role included the development andimplementation of technical and management on the jobtraining (during Stage 1, 21 Trainees completed Certificate 2in Essential Services for Aboriginal and Torres Strait IslanderCommission (ATSIC) communities through the Technical andFurther Education Programme (TAFE)), the implementation of

best practice in infrastructure asset management, raisingawareness among community members of the importance ofcaring for infrastructure assets, and the need to establishmechanisms for permanent Essential Services Officer positions.

3. Installation of piped water services.

2. Drilling a borehole.



NAMIBIA

BOTSWANA

ZIMBABWE

Pretoria

Johannesburg

UpingtonKimberley

Bloemfontein

De Aar

East London

SWAZILAND

LESOTHO

MOZ.

Saldanha

CapeTown Mosselbaal

Port Elizabeth

Ladysmith

RichardsBay

Durban

Pietersburg

Messina

0 50 100 km

Area where roundabouts

have been installed

Case study 2:South African roundabout HIV/AIDS initiative

Project background

The AIDS epidemic is tearing apart the social and economicfabric of many African nations. 70% of the worlds AIDS-infectedadults and 80% of infected children live in Sub-Saharan Africa.

There are 11M child AIDS orphans, and grandparents areforced to assume the responsibility for childrearing7. Affectedfamilies lose income-earning capacity, both through the absenceof the income earner and the time and cost incurred in nursingthe infected. The problem compounds itself: poverty is a keyfactor leading to the behaviour that exposes people to risk ofHIV infections, and the resulting HIV compounds the poverty.

Project details

The concept is simple: a childs playground roundabout boltedon top of an existing borehole, with the energy of the childrenat play harnessed to pump drinking water into an overheadstorage tank screened with billboards promoting HIV/AIDSawareness to the children and communities. There is acommunal tap at ground level. Each roundabout/pump costsUS$5000, and is based on standard windmill equipment locatedbelow ground8.

The above-ground equipment includes the tank and galvanizedsheet as advertising boards, available at any farm supply store.

Project construction and replication are helped by the use ofstandard and easily procurable materials.

Play power has advantages over conventional energy sources.It is clean, renewable, and robust, and the borehole recoversnaturally during the night. There is no risk of pumping dry orengine burnout if the pump is accidentally left on overnight.

At least 50% of the billboard space promotes health-relatedinformation, in particular on HIV and AIDS. This is an effectiveadvertising medium in the absence of conventional first worldmedia like newspapers, magazines, television, and the Internet.

Revenue from commercial advertisers in the remaining spacewill provide a regular flow of income for the manufacture ofnew roundabouts and to cover maintenance costs. Womenand young girls benefit from the saving of time and energypreviously spent fetching water for daily needs from deep wells

at long distances, and are placed at less risk. Also, they benefitfrom the HIV/AIDS awareness campaign.

Progress report

More than 300 roundabout pumps have been installed inSouth Africa, each serving a community of over 2500 people.Various improvements to standard of living have been noted,including the ready availability of clean drinking water. Thisreduces water-borne diseases like cholera, and helps in thedevelopment of thriving vegetable farms providing freshproduce for schools and for sale at market.

6. Children at play turning a roundabout bolted above an existingborehole. This action works a pump enabling drinking water to bepumped into an overhead storage tank screened with billboardspromoting HIV/AIDS awareness to the community.

4. Play power.

5. Southern Africa.



Rangpur

Rajshahi

MymensinghSylhet

INDIA

Comilla

Tungi

Dhaka

NarayanganjJessore

Khulna

Mongla

Barisal

Chittagong

CoxsBazar

MYANMAR

NEPAL

INDIA

0 50 100 km

Case study 3:Micro-finance in Bangladesh

Project background

Bangladesh is one of the poorest, most densely populated,and least developed nations in the world. With more than125M inhabitants, it is the eighth most populous country inthe world - but with a per capita annual income estimated ataround US$2809. Situated in a low-lying delta where fourmajor river systems come together, the country is blessed withhighly fertile soil, but also suffers regular and severe flooding.Shelter is one of the most basic requirements, but many

Bangladeshis cannot afford the cost of housing able towithstand the monsoon and winter periods. Typical housesare made of jute sticks placed side-by-side and cost betweenUS$25 and US$30. Such houses tend to collapse in moderatelysevere weather. Even if constructed with bamboo walls andhay/thatch roofing, at a significantly higher cost, they are notvery durable. As a result, almost every year, people replace orrepair the roof of their house at a cost of up to US$40. Thiscost is increasing with the constant rise in price of bamboo andhay. This ongoing expenditure is a heavy burden on the poor.If they have no access to cash, people are forced to borrowmoney from moneylenders at very high rates (10% per month)9.This situation could be avoided if more durable shelter couldbe constructed; in turn this depends on finance.

Project details

The Grameen Bank10, the largest rural credit institution in

Bangladesh, with 2.4M borrowers (95% of them female), wasestablished in 1976. The Bank recognizes that it is lack ofaccess to collateral rather than inability to make loan paymentsthat perpetuates poverty. Regular micro-enterprise loans aretypically disbursed to individuals for one year and are paid backin weekly instalments at 2% of the loan amount, which isnormally no more than US$20 for the first loan. To participatein the loan programme, a member must gather five peoplewith similar economic and social backgrounds who will agreeto apply for and sign together on loans (a group). A cluster ofgroups (between two and 10) constitutes a centre, which ispresided over by two officials9. The borrowers group and centremembers must agree to stand behind the loan for the individualmember. The collateral system, based on peer support, meansthat families help each other out with payment to ensure thatall repayments are made on time. Grameen Bank operates asa specialized bank for the poor, generating income from itsinvestments; it is not reliant on donor funding. When the Bankwas formally incorporated in 1983, the original rural membersprovided 40% of the initial capital: the Bangladesh governmentcontributed the rest. The Bank has since become largelyself-sufficient, with the government now holding less than10% of the equity.

Housing loans: In 1984, the Bank started to lend money forhousing, and to date 450 000 houses have been built usingthese loans. An average of 7000-8000 new loans are madeevery month. Although exceptions are made for the poorestof poor in dire need of shelter, relatively strict rules governthese loans. To qualify for a housing loan, a member mustfulfil the following:

be an existing Bank borrower, with a 100% repaymentrecord, and have completely repaid their first twoloans from income generating activities

prove that they have an adequate income andhave acquired savings

have a history of regularly attending weekly meetings

provide legal documentation of land ownership wherethe house will be built (if the member does not ownland, he/she is encouraged to use the loan towardsland purchase), and

must submit a proposal on the type of house plannedand devise a repayment schedule.

House design:The Grameen Bank developed house designsfor borrowers. The houses, although varying in appearance,have the same basic structural components: four reinforcedconcrete pillars on brick foundations at the corners and sixintermediary bamboo posts, with bamboo tie beams, woodenrafters, and purlins supporting corrugated iron roofing sheets.This design provides stability in flood and strong monsoon windsand protection from rain. Although the borrower is responsiblefor the construction of the house, the Bank ensures that itmeets basic health and safety requirements and achievesminimum Grameen standards. Since mid-1998, the Bank hasrequired members to install a sanitary latrine with each house.

Progress report

The Bank operates efficiently and is widely consideredinnovative, progressive, and corruption-free. The rate of

repayment for all loans is 98%, and for housing loans it isclose to 100%, compared to 25-30% for other banks.Loans are currently available at 8% interest, again comparingvery favourably with the 20% interest charged for regular orshort-term loans from other banks9. The Bank providesemployment for 12 600 people.

To date, the Grameen Bank housing programme has assistedhundreds of thousands of Bangladeshi families to break out ofthe downward spiral of poverty. A sturdy, well-built house is asymbol of social status, so borrowers gain dignity and standingwithin the community.

The larger houses give improved environments for work andstudy, and hence have directly contributed to higher incomegeneration. It is estimated that 95% of borrowers childrenattend school, well above the nationwide average.

By demanding standardized construction practices like the useof cement pillars and installation of sanitary latrines, GrameenBank assists in improving the health and safety of borrowers.In one survey, the general health of those with the newGrameen houses compared well with those in pre-existingor more traditional houses. Fever, influenza, and typhoid(among other diseases) were down by almost 50%9.

Micro-credit programmes based on the Grameenexperience have been established in 56 other countries.

9 above: Typical housing before, and 10 below: after Grameen programme.

8. A group of borrowersat their micro-creditweekly meeting with theGrameen Bank manager.

7. Bangladesh.


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Angeles

Legaspi

Samar

Jolo

Iligan

MindanaoDavao

Iloillo

Aparri

Manila

Palawan

0 50 100 km

Case study 4:BP solar energy project, Philippines

Project background

The Philippines archipelago comprises around 7100 islands,1000 of them inhabited. Less than a half exceed 2.5km2 inarea. Many of the villages (Barangays) dotted over the countryare remote and difficult to access by land or sea, so for manyconnection to a national power grid is not feasible. Most districthospitals and regional health units have little or no electricity,and lack of lighting in community halls limits opportunities forfurther education and involvement in community affairs. Many

villages rely on shallow wells or surface springs for their water,hence water-borne disease is endemic. Latrines are unsanitary,if existing at all.

Solar power can provide a highly effective, low-cost andenvironmentally friendly alternative to extending power linesand/or transporting generator fuel to these areas.

Project details

After the success of a solar power project completed inSri Lanka in 1993/94, BP Solar Australia approached thePhilippines government with a concept for large-scaleimplementation of solar power across rural communities,and received a favourable response.

The initial objective was to install about 1000 stand-alonesolar-powered equipment packages in 400 villages in remoteareas of Mindanao and Visayas provinces. At its time, this

was the largest solar contract in the world, at a total projectcost of US$27M. Fundamental to the projects successwas the simplicity of the funding, via a single loan recipient- the Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG)- through a grant (33%) plus a soft loan (67%), both fromthe Australian government.

Community mobilization phase: Community involvementthroughout the entire duration of a project, fostering a senseof ownership and responsibility, is essential for success. TheMunicipal Solar Infrastructure Project (MSIP) was implementedwith the help of two full-time BP staff from Australia, but theother 500 staff involved were Filipino, selected from thecommunities they were to work in, enabling communication inlocal dialects.

Prior to project finalization, officials used community assembliesto introduce the project, discuss the benefits both to individualsand the entire community, and explain the basics of solarelectricity. If the community - in particular the mayor - wasinterested, agreements were made to proceed. Site and socialsurveys were used to determine the development needs ofeach community and to identify the means by which solarenergy could be best used as the enabling technology to meetthese needs. BP also spent time with each Barangay, exploringrevenue-generating activities that would enable them to pay forthe services provided by the solar-powered systems.

Provision of systems: Solar systems were supplied andinstalled in the specified areas, though the logistics werechallenging, due to the difficulty of getting construction materials,equipment, and systems into the communities. As this was atied-aid project funded by the Australian government, BPAustralia was obliged to source a minimum of 87% ofcomponents from Australia. However, some construction

items, videos, and televisions were sourced locally/nationally11.Training and capacity building: In each Barangay, twopeople were elected to form the Barangay Technical Team(BTT) and trained on simple system maintenance: cleaningthe modules, topping up the battery electrolyte, etc. Municipalengineers and operatives were trained on the more technicalrepairs and maintenance of system components. Spare partswere distributed to the municipality to give the communitieseasy access to replacement parts. High-level training wasprovided for the universities, with staff and students being ablefully to dismantle, repair, and reassemble the components.After the commissioning and handover of each system, BPSolar carried out three separate follow-up visits with the groupsthat had been formed.

Over 2000 people have been trained (including training oftrainers) on both project governance (how to organizemeetings, accounting and reporting; how to collect fees/localrevenues for sustaining services/maintenance, etc) as well ason the technical aspects (maintenance, including local repairand replacement of parts). Experience has clearly shown thatwithout such training, systems fall into disuse and disrepairand communities are then left disillusioned.

Progress report

MSIP commenced in November 1997 and completedin May 2001. In total 1145 packaged solar systemswere installed in 11 Provinces, 53 Municipalities and435 Barangays. The quality of life for over 720 000people in some of the most remote and poorestprovinces of the Philippines has been improved12.Improved health, safety, education, governance, andeasier access to potable water will bring about poverty

alleviation. The project improved local governance byenhancing the ability of the Local Government Units(LGU) to deliver essential social services and elicit theparticipation of community organizations and individualsin improved governance. Although it was necessary forBP Solar to pull out of several areas over the life of theproject due to political uncertainty, an impressive list ofcommunity facilities were upgraded:

Four district hospitals, 11 rural health centres,and 104 Barangay health centres: More thanhalf a million people will directly benefit fromimproved services. Improved capacity to store andutilize vaccines, and other medicines will reduceinfant maternal mortality rates, assist in tetanusprevention, and improve general illness treatment.

289 areas of communal lighting for markets

and fishermens wharves: These facilitate safernight vessel navigation and reducing night fishingwharf accidents.

260 Barangay potable water supply systems:These will lead to substantial reductions inwater-borne disease. Women in particular willbenefit from time savings in water collection andcaring for ill family members.

266 schools, six municipal halls, and 201Barangay halls:Access to school facilitiesat night for adult education or entertainment willfurther improve quality of life.

12 left: Lightingfor improvededucation facilities.

13 below:Communal lightingto wharves.

11. The Phillippines.

THEARUPJOURNAL

1/2003

7



INDIA CHINA

THAILAND

Rangoon

Zayu

Myitkyina

Banmauk

Taunggyi

Moulmein

0 100 200 km

Case study 5:Communal sanitation, MyanmarProject background

Access to clean water and adequate sanitation is essentialto the development of a sustainable community. Access forthe poor is a key factor in improving health and economicproductivity, and is therefore an essential component in anyeffort to alleviate poverty.

In 2001, 16% of the world was without water supply and 40%without access to adequate sanitation. Water-borne diseasesare responsible for more than 80% of all sicknesses in the

world, resulting in the deaths of over 4M children annually.Diarrhoeal diseases are the third most significant child killer(after respiratory infections and malaria), accounting for 15%of the under-five years mortality rate, especially in rural areas.Substantial decreases in the frequency of contagious diseasefrom inadequate sanitation and water supply would resultin substantial savings in healthcare costs. These could beinvested in national development, thus further increasingnational productivity.

In 1997, Myanmar was crippled by diarrhoeal disease, killing30 000 children. Sanitation coverage stood at only 39% of thepopulation, and personal and domestic hygiene was poor13.Myanmar ranked 190th out of 191 in the WHO Report 200014.

Project details

Over the past decade, significant attempts have been madeto improve sanitation in Myanmar. In the mid-1990s thegovernment, in a bid to promote community participation,adopted a strategy in which families were provided with freelatrine pans. However this proved too costly, failed to achievecommunity support, and was phased out. The governmentthen recognized that it could no longer be the sole provider ofsanitation services, and that the key role of government shouldbe to facilitate and stimulate local communities to recognizeand meet their own needs. This was to be carried out throughorganizing and financing community mobilization and house-hold motivation, and running an awareness campaign, knownas the National Sanitation Week (NSW). For the past five years,UNICEF has supported this programme. National SanitationWeek activities are carried out under the guidance of theNational Health Committee and with the active involvementof the entire nation.

The Week has three key objectives:

to educate the general public in the valuesof sanitation

to assist people in actual implementationof sanitary work

to reduce the spread of communicable disease.

Community mobilization:As individual users are the ultimatedecision makers who embrace or reject new technology,community involvement is widely accepted as a key ingredientin the success of any aid project. As noted in previous casestudies, participation of local people in all stages of a project,from design and construction to operation and maintenance, isparamount in fostering a sense of ownership and ensuring thatfacilities are properly used and maintained.

Use of sanitation cannot be imposed - it has to be created bydemand. In the past, supply-driven approaches to sanitation

provision have led to widespread disuse of latrines, leavinglatrine slabs as a health hazard and a negative influence onany future sanitation attempts. Demand for use of sanitationsystems is thus not is easily generated, as rural populations donot often perceive the health benefits arising from sanitation. Itis therefore fundamentally important that sanitation be effectivelypromoted, as part of health education, to create demand.

Promotional campaign:This treated sanitation as a productto be marketed to individual households, with all available andaffordable media and communication channels being used topromote sanitation messages. The approach was broad-based,emphasizing not only potential health improvements butalso benefits such as privacy and convenience, elevation ofhousehold status, respect and dignity (especially for women),environmental awareness, and the potential economic benefitsof generating resources out of waste.

Social mobilization was intensified through community meetingsorganized at various levels, supported by visiting health teamsand input non-governmental organizations, schoolteachers,and local leaders. A range of information and communicationmaterials, such as posters, pamphlets, and models of affordablelatrines, was produced. National television and media alsoplayed a significant communication role. UNICEF contributedabout US$100 000 per year to these promotional activities 15.

The communication and social mobilization packagehas been improved each year to give greater attention toupgrading unsanitary latrines and integrating washing ofhands into the sanitation cycle. Interested householdsform a village sanitation committee, which plays afundamental role in co-ordinating activities.

Implementation: Construction activities commencedonly after the awareness campaign had been launchedand hygiene and sanitation education provided. Thusconstruction took place only in motivated communitiesand with the co-operation of the end users; indeed,it was promoted as a do-it-yourself construction

programme. Families were responsible for installingand financing their own sanitation facilities, withsubsidies only made available for schools and forthe communities that could not afford self-finance.Households were in fact subsidized during the 1997floods but even then an element of self-help wasexpected. A low-cost (Kyat 900 or US$2.75) locally-manufactured plastic pan and pipe set was madeavailable to each household that had excavated (andlined where necessary) a pit and then built as good asuperstructure as it could afford16. A wide range of lowcost and appropriate latrine designs was developed,suited to individual family preference and affordability.Every effort was made to promote capacity and incomegeneration activities among community members, toallow them to participate by contributing labour, cash,and/or materials towards building the project. The privatesector responded, to meet the rising demand for parts.Local production of plastic latrine pans has increased bya factor of six in the last five years, from about 40 000 in1995 to more than 250 000 annually16. To reduce costs,locally available materials were widely used and somevillage leaders organized the bulk purchase of bamboo.

Progress report

In 1997, before the national campaign was launched,the sanitation coverage throughout rural areas stood at39%13. In 2001, sanitation coverage stands at 57%17.Hand-washing with soap and water after latrine use hasalso increased, from 18% in 1996 to 43% in 200118.

Too frequently, the success of sanitation programs ismeasured by the total number of latrines constructed,with little attention to actual operation, maintenance, or

usage. Long-term success of these systems depends onthe availability of supplies, parts, equipment, and theavailability of trained people needed to monitor, maintainand repair the systems, as well as continued communitydemand for their use.

As sanitation coverage in Myanmar grows, campaigningcontinues. Programmed follow-up to the NationalSanitation Week is being provided in selected townshipsthrough more intensive social mobilization targetedat hard to reach households and communities, andactivity-based sanitation and hygiene education inselected schools. This approach recognizes that schoolscreate an excellent participatory and enabling learningenvironment in which to promote sanitary habits andhygienic practices. There continues to be widespreadgeneral training of decision-makers, planners, and trainersin social mobilization programmes for hygiene. The 2002

National Sanitation Week accordingly gave specialemphasis to activities to be carried out in 73 of a totalof 324 townships, where 50% or more of the householdsstill do not have access to a sanitary latrine18.

Myanmars success is a model to other countries andhas been internationally recognized by South East AsianRegion Countries. Government delegates from Indonesia,Pakistan, Bhutan, China, Vietnam and Laos have cometo Myanmar to observe their activities and learn fromtheir experiences. Nepal launched its own NationalSanitation Action Week: March 2001.

15. Rural water supply.

14. Myanmar.



Authors acknowledgement:

Nicole Hahn undertook the research for this paper.Her enthusiasm and personal commitment for this topic isunbounded and exemplifies the commitment of many youngengineering professionals to make a difference.

I am grateful for her contribution and support.

Image Credits

2, 3: Arup

1, 4, 6: Roundabout Outdoor

5, 7, 11, 14: Daniel Blackhall

8-10: Building and HousingSocial Foundation

12, 13, 15: BP Solar

Conclusions

Each case study illustrates the application of relatively lowtechnology engineering in small-scale investments whichnonetheless enjoy high levels of community engagement.The success of these programmes is due in significantmeasure to this level of community commitment and to theextent of understanding of social, economic and politicalinfluences in that local community.

As Sir Ove Arup said, Engineering problems are under-defined,there are many solutions, good, bad and indifferent. The art isto arrive at a good solution. This is a creative activity, involvingimagination, intuition and deliberate choice.

In these case studies and in many similar scenarios, thesolutions developed have not been primarily engineeringsolutions, although engineering plays a key part in theoutcome adopted. It is not known which profession tookthe lead in which scenario, but it is clear that engineers withappropriate sensitivity could have led in all of them.

The case studies therefore illustrate the application of soundengineering solutions to poverty alleviation:

Sustainable engineering was achieved, as thesolutions adopted will have a positive or neutralimpact on natural resources.

Life-cycle engineering took into account theoperational and maintenance cost of the engineeringsolutions. The completed projects have effective and

affordable operational and maintenance regimes. Empowered engineering took into account the

capabilities of the local community, in particular itsengineering and technical professions. The solutionsdeveloped involve local professional and technicalstaff and will establish an on-going engineering andoperational resource.

Appropriate engineering considered variousoptions that met the engineering project needsand adopted labour-intensive construction whererelevant, so as to create community involvementand knowledge of the projects operations and tostimulate community income.

The challenge for the engineering profession is to revisit ourBrunel roots and develop a suite of solutions to the issuesraised in this paper. These should include solutions not onlyto the alleviation of poverty when it occurs but also to thedevelopment of sustainable urban infrastructure; solutionsthat recognize rather than resist the inevitability of migrationto urban centres and then make provision for these rapidlygrowing populations.

Engineers can work effectively with other professions andcommunity leaders to develop sustainable solutions to poverty.And engineers can take the lead in developing sustainableconcepts for the urban areas of the future, concepts in which:

Access to and opportunities foremployment are enhanced.

Housing, sanitation, and water supplyare provided at affordable prices.

Access to and opportunities for

education are enhanced. Affordable transport facilities are available.

This is our Brunel challenge.It is worthy of our commitment.

Text references

(1) WORLD BANK. World Development Report 2000/2001:Attacking poverty. Oxford University Press, USA, 2000.

(2) UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (UNDP).Understanding and responding to poverty.[online at http://www.undp.org/poverty/overview/].Accessed 20 September 2002.

(3) USAKA and GABORONE, Helping the third world:How to make aid work. The Economist, 26 June 1999.

(4) CROSWELL, J. The role of the consultant: Symposium on labourintensive construction. Midrand, South Africa, 1993.

(5) SMALL, K. The rural village water supply programme, Botswana.The Arup Journal, 28(1), pp15-17, 1/1993.

(6) TSOUKAS, J. Managing the HIPP programme.The Arup Journal, 34(4), pp10-13, 4/1999 (Millennium Issue 1).

(7) AVERT. How many people in Africa are infected with HIV/AIDS?[online at http://www.avert.org/aafrica.htm].Accessed 20 October 2002.

(8) BUSINESS ACTION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT(BASD) and UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME.Virtual Exhibit - South Africa: the roundabout outdoor HIV/AIDSinitiative. [online at http://www.virtualexhibit.net/new/home.php].Accessed 18 September 2002.

(9) BUILDING AND SOCIAL HOUSING FOUNDATION (BSHF). WorldHabitat Awards: The Grameen Bank low-cost housing programme,Bangladesh. [online at http://www.mandamus.co.uk/bshf/cgi-bin/wha/show.a.wha.cgi?whaNo=31].Accessed 30 September 2002.

(10) GRAMEEN BANK. Microfinance. [online at

http://www.grameen-info.org]. Accessed 11 May 2001.(11) BUSINESS ACTION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT andUNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME. Virtual exhibit The Philippines Municipal Solar Infrastructure Project. [online athttp://www.virtualexhibit.net/new/home.php].Accessed 18 September 2002.

(12) WORLD BUSINESS COUNCIL FOF SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT (WBCSD). Sustain online - A ray of sunshinein the Philippines. [online athttp://www.sustainonline.org/news/fullstory.php/aid/265/A_ray_of_sunshine_in_the_Philippines.html].Accessed 18 September 2002.

(13) YANGO, R. Fourth National Sanitation Week 2001(Myanmar Information Centre) [online athttp://www.myanmar-information.net/infosheet/2001/010225.htm].Accessed 22 May 2001.

(14) WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION.

Global water supply and sanitation assessment 2000 report.WHO Publication Center, USA, 2000.

(15) SANDA, D,andOYA, K. Community-based water supply andsanitation improvement. Proceedings of the 24th Water Engineeringand Development Centre Conference, Islamabad, Pakistan, 1998.WEDC,1998.

(16) UNICEF MYANMAR. Rehabilitation of water supply andsanitation facilities affected by the flood. [0nline athttp://www.unicef.org/myanmar/pages/WES_Echo.pdf].Accessed 18 September 2002.

(17) WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION. World health report 2002.WHO Publication Center, USA, 2002.

(18) BAJRACHARY, D. Myanmar experiences in sanitation andhygiene promotion: Lessons learned and future directions.UNICEF, Yangoon, 2002.

Other references

(19) BOTHA, D and HOLLWAY, A. Addressing poverty alleviationthrough engineering development. South Africa

(20) CLEARY, P. Africas Holocaust - How the West is ignoring thedisaster. The Weekend Australian Financial Review,14-15 September, 2002.

(21) DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (DFID).Making connections Infrastructure for poverty reduction.Copyright UK Ltd, UK, 2002.

(22) UNITED NATIONS HIGH COMMISSION FOR REFUGEES.What is poverty?. [online athttp://www.unhchr.ch/development/poverty-02.html].Accessed 18 September 2002.

(23) WHYTE, A. Guidelines for planning community participationactivities in water supply and sanitation projects. WHO PublicationCentre, Geneva, 1986.

(24) WORLD BANK. DM past projects: South Africa Journal. [online

at http://www.developmentmarketplace.org/safrica3journal.html].Accessed 20 September 2002.

(25) WORLD BANK. South Africa: the roundabout outdoorplaypump. [online athttp://www.worldbank.org/af/findings/english/find218.pdf].Accessed 20 November 2002.

(26) WORLD BUSINESS COUNCIL FOR SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT. Developing Countries and TechnologyCo-operation 10 business cases. WBCSD, Austria, 2002.

The differencebetween whatwe do and what

we could dowould suffice tosolve most of

the worldsproblems:

Mahatma Ghandi

No other issuesuffers such

disparitybetween humanimportance and

its politicalpriority:

Kofi Annan

(on water andsanitation)


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Source: Engineering As a Social Enterprise, Hedy E. Sladovich, National Academy

Press, 1991, ISBN13:9780309083621

SOCIAL IMPACTS OF ENGINEERING

Many engineering developments of this century with immense impacts on our lives have not beenaccompanied by realistic engineering views of those impacts on the social fabric or the environment.Would the societal consequences have been different if engineers had been more involved in asystematic study of engineering's complex role in society, had a working dialogue with social scientists,and had better communication with the public? For instance, could we have anticipated that theautomobile would turn out to be a severe source of pollution as well as a powerful instrument of urbanchange, that radios in every household would catalyze the political emancipation of women, or thattelevision would influence our values and contribute to functional illiteracy? Could we have anticipatedthat a broader base of affluence brought about by technology in the nations of the West would beaccompanied by the rise of anomie and a drug culture among not only the poor and thedisenfranchised, but also the more affluent who have in many material ways benefited the most from

technology? Could we have anticipated that abundant energy for industries and homes or theinvention of plastic materials would have such serious environmental consequences, and that cleanertechnologies, such as computers, would damage the earth 's ozone layer because of the use ofchlorofluorocarbons in the fabrication of microchips?

The list of impacts and side effects of technology is long and growing and has contributed to society'sambivalence about technology. While it would be wrong to blame the engineer for the apparent lack ofinterest by large portions of society in understanding the technological process with its constraints andpossibilities, engineers can do much to reduce society's ambivalence if they could overcome their ownparochialism. For example, a gap that exists sometime between the perceptions of the engineers andthose of the rest of society can be seen in educational technology. Engineers have tended to focus onthe development of new technologies rather than the social setting municipal bureaucracies, schoolsystems, and homesin which that technology is to become acceptable if it is to be successful (NAE,1974).

Part of the difficulty engineers encounter in dealing with social issues has to do with too manydefinitions of engineering and the lack of agreed upon and shared tenets. The famous 1828 definitionof engineering by the British Institution of Engineeringas the modification of nature (Encyclopaedia

Britannica, 1910)was on the right track but is both too general (as other human activities alsomodify nature) and too specific in its subsequent detailing of those activities. The kind of definitionsthat later and to this day seem to have become accepted by many engineers center on the applicationof science to human welfare. Definitions of this kind fall wide of the mark by remaining too vagueabout the definition of human welfare and the role of engineering in it. They overlook the essentialnature of engineering as a human activity to modifynature (a clear distinction between science andengineering). Furthermore, such definitions are not accompanied by a widely shared set of principlesthat parallel in power and simplicity the verifiable truth of the scientist, although there have beenrecent efforts to explore key concepts common to all engineering disciplines (see, among others,Bugliarello, 1989b).

An important point in looking at the social function of engineering is how society makes engineeringpossible. A complex feedback situation emerges. The artifacts extend the power and reach of societyand the individual. Society, in turn, through its organizations and demands, makes possible thedevelopment of complex artifacts and stimulates their constant technical evolution and diffusion.Today, to talk about the impact of engineering on society is meaningless without also talking aboutthe impact of society on engineering, and how it shapes the role of engineering. The complexity of theinteractions between society and engineering is at the root of unrealistic expectations aboutengineering, as social entities are often inadequately organized to develop and use engineeringeffectively. It is also at the root of the frustration of engineers unable to bring their capabilities to bearon the solution of social problems or the effective organization of the engineering enterprise.


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2

SOCIOLOGY AND EDUCATION OF ENGINEERS

To understand how engineering responds to the needs of society, we must examine its social structure

and its function. Most people who study engineering in the United States have higher mathematicsskills than verbal and social ones. This limits their involvement in politics and their success incommunicating with the rest of society. Society, in turn, often views the engineer as a narrow,conservative, numbers-driven person, insensitive to subtle societal issues.

The systematic study of sociotechnical problems is rarely included in the engineering curricula as animportant sphere of engineering activity. The curriculum focuses on man-made artifacts to theexclusion, except for specialized cases, of biological systems and organisms. This narrow focus haskept engineering away from not only a rich source of inspiration for specific technical feats and lessonsoffered by systems of great subtlety and complexity, but also a deeper understanding ofenvironmental change.

Most high school students today do not view an engineering education as a path to success andprestige worthy of the sacrifices of a rigorous curriculum. It is rarely chosen by the offspring of thewell-to-do and the socially prominent. Even bright young engineering students, upon graduation,switch to careers in business management, law, and medicine. On the other hand, engineeringcontinues to be a powerful instrument for social mobility and advancement for immigrants and thepoor. This situation accentuates the perceived social gap between engineers and other professions insociety. It is further reinforced by massive layoffs in defense industries and practices in theconstruction business that treat engineers more as commodities than as professionals (Jacobs, 1989).

In different societies engineering provides most of the same artifacts: shelter, energy andcommunications, manufacturing, water supply, extraction and use of resources, and disposal of waste.There are societies where engineers carry out broader functions by virtue of the position they hold. Inseveral European and developing countries, they head state organizations and major industryconglomerates, participate in government, and enjoy high social prestige. By contrast, engineers inthe United States are absent from major positions of societal leadership, and only a handful serve in

Congress, as governors, or at the cabinet level.

In the United States the number of engineers per capita is roughly half that of Japan. Coupled withlayoffs, this is an indicator of how seriously underengineered the United States is. The situationneeds to be addressed not only in terms of supply and demand of engineers, but also in terms of thebasic structure and direction of the country.

Social Responsibility

The burning question for engineering in extending the outreach of society is: What is responsibleoutreach? The answer is perhaps best given in evolutionary terms. Man-made artifacts, albeitextensions of our body, have not evolved through the gradual process that has shaped man and otherbiological species. Thus, we constantly face the question of whether the technology we develop

enhances the long-range survival of our species. Because assessing how well engineering carries outits social function lacks the ultimate test of the crucible of evolution, we need to define what we meanby the social responsibility of engineering. In the following paragraphs, I offer five guiding principles,some of which are already deeply embedded in the conscience of engineers.

Uphold the dignity of man.The dignity of man is an imponderable in terms of a clear evolutionarymeaning. However, it is a fundamental value of our society that never should be violated by anengineering design. This happens when the design or operation of a technological product (a building,a machine, a procedure) fails to recognize the importance of individuality, privacy, diversity, andaesthetics and is based on a stereotyped view of a human being.


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Avoid dangerous or uncontrolled side effects and by-products.The challenge to engineering is how tofulfill its social purpose in ways that either control side effects and by-products or make them moreeasily foreseeable. This demands a rigorous preliminary examination of how to solve a problem andachieve a given social purpose. The problem is complicated beyond measure by the multitude ofpressures leading to the development of a design or a technology be they political, economic,popular, or intrinsically technological. These pressures can lead to unwise outcomes beyond the abilityof engineering to solve, for example, the deferral of municipal maintenance due to constrainedbudgets or the abandonment of nuclear power plants in some Western countries.

Make provisions for consequence when technology fails.The importance of making provisions for theconsequences of failure is self-evident, especially in those systems that are complex, pervasive, andplace us at great risk if they fail. A simple example is the failure of an air-conditioning system in aclosed ventilation system, as occurred tragically in 1990 at Mecca, with the loss of over a thousandlives (Newsweek,1990). A more complex example is the space shuttle. Because it is the sole vehiclefor a multitude of space tasks, any of its failures sets back our position in space.

Avoid buttressing social systems that perform poorly and should bereplaced.This runs much against

the grain of most engineers. Thanks to a multitude of technological and engineering fixes (Weinberg,1966), our society often avoids rethinking fundamental social issues and organization. However,short-run technological fixes can put us at much greater risk in the long term. In the case of energy,for instance, technological or commercial fixes cannot mask the need to rethink globally the impact ofconsumerism and the interrelationship of energy, environment, and economic development.

Participate in formulating the why of technology.At present the engineering profession is poorlyequipped to do so both in this country and elsewhere. Few engineers, for instance, have been involvedin developing a philosophy of technologyas distinct from that of scienceand in teaching the subjectin engineering schools. 3Yet, John Dewey saw the problems of philosophy and those of technology asinseparable at the beginning of this century (Hickman, 1990). This separation of engineering andphilosophy affects our entire society. Engineers, in shaping our future, need to be guided by a clearersense of the meaning and evolutionary role of technology. The great social challenges we face requirea rethinking of the human-artifact-society interrelationship and the options it offers us to carry out agrowing number of social functions using quasi-intelligent artifacts to instruct, manufacture, inspect,control, and so on. We also need to think through the implications of a shift from energy toinformation (for example, for issues relating to urban planning and the environment), and thepossibilities of hyperintelligencethe enhancement of the social intelligence of our species throughthe interaction of humans and global computer networks.

Social Purpose

How well does engineering fulfill it social purpose? This apparently simple question presents severalproblems.

Which social group are engineers trying to satisfy? Is it a family, a tribe, a company, a municipality, a

nation, or a supernational global entity? It is clear that different groups have different technologicalneeds and expectations, and that if engineering satisfies some groups, it may not satisfy others.

What about the needs of the engineers themselves as a social group? A technology that does notrespond to the interests of other social groups but serves exclusively its own purposes evincesconcerns about autonomous or runaway technology (Winner, 1977). While it is possible to envisionsuch an occurrence for a technological system, the likelihood of runaway engineering is generallyremote, if only because engineers, as a cog in the technological system, are unable to be autonomousand run away with their designs (Florman, 1987; Veblen, 1921) and are most often subservient tocontingent pressures of a social group.

The term satisfactionlacks a rigorous definition necessary to describe an engineering response to aparticular social need. The dimensions of a social group are a particularly important factor. In the case


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of small social groups resources are generally too limited to develop anything but the simplesttechnologies. Even the wealthiest of families today could not, even if they wished it, mount a mannedexploration of space. Hence, small social groups, as well as large, unorganized populations, can onlyuse today's technologies, not create them. With this comes the associated danger of alienation fromtechnology or of resentment spurred by limited participation and ignorance. At a national and globalscale, there is a similar lack of powerful supranational organizations to mobilize and controltechnological resources. Hence, the danger of global environmental damage continues. Today,intermediate-size organizationscorporations and governmental bodiesare most effective inmobilizing technology in response to their needs.

An important determinant of how well engineering satisfies its social purpose is the breadth ofengineering. Engineering today continues overwhelmingly to focus on inanimate artifacts or machines,just as engineering school curricula worldwide continue to bypass sociotechnological integrations likethe biomachinethe ever-growing interaction and interpenetration of biological and machine systems.4This lopsided orientation grew out of obvious historical origins that have had major consequences forsociety. The factory environment so single-mindedly rationalized by the engineer F. W. Tayloroverlooked the effective integration of the workerthe biological unitand the machine in the

production process. This is so almost everywhere in the world, with the notable exception of Japan,where a different social ethos has produced a more effective integration. At the opposite end of thespectrum is the anomie of the worker in Eastern Europe.

Social Needs

The various needs of social groups that engineering and technology may be expected to satisfy areeducational (mentioned earlier), economic, environmented, health, public service, spiritual, anddefense. It is important to underscore that, in seeking to satisfy these needs, engineering cannot beshackled to short-range and narrow technical applications. It must be allowed to explore newextensions of our biological capability.

The recurrent conflict between advocates of independent and targeted research is an example and an

inevitable result of the tension between short-and long-range needs. If pushed to the extreme,however, such conflicts may cross the boundary between what is socially useful and what is out ofcontrol.

At the intellectual core of the sluggish and somewhat myopic response of U.S. engineering toenvironmental needs is the lack of basic environmental principles embedded by education in theconsciousness of all engineers. A key principle, for instance, is recognition that any artifact anyalteration of nature inevitably has an effect on the environment, and particularly on the humans andother living organisms in it. Another key principle is the requirement, as an essential component of thedesign process, to address those impacts to the satisfaction not only of the engineer and theengineer's employer but also of the general public.

The health care system has absorbed an ever-greater portion of our gross national product, regardless

of the state of our economic prosperity. At the same time, it has priced itself outside the financialreach of almost 40 million Americans. Technology has abetted the situation, not only by favoring thehigher-cost, high-repair segment of the system, but also by not addressing the structure of thesystem (Bugliarello, 1984b). Similarly the problem of hunger remains endemic in many parts of theglobe despite advances in agricultural technology. Even when production is high, in many countriesgrain supplies rot for lack of effective storage and distribution systems.

The pattern of technology repeats itself in the way we address problems of infrastructure, education,and poverty, or the problems of the metropolitan areas that now are home to more than 75 percent ofour population. For instance, the problem of housing for the poor and homeless in many developingcountries as well as in the United States persists despite our knowledge of building techniques andmaterials. We need to organize a system of production, distribution, self-help, and education to putthat knowledge to work for the dispossessed.


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Technology and science working in concert have demythologized many social and cultural beliefs andleft a spiritual no-man's-land. Paradoxically, the very success envisioned by eighteenth-centuryencyclopedists man's conquest of naturehas confused our society, sweeping away the certaintiesof the past and leaving society in need of guidance and new orthodoxies. Cars, airplanes,telecommunications, fast foods, and contraceptives have brought about a drastic restructuring ofsocial customs and processes and a jadedness about technological advances. It may be argued thatengineers need to question their cultural responsibility to society as they contribute to its change. Thiseffort must begin in the universities. The task is particularly daunting for the United States, with itsthin line of 20,000 engineering teachers of growing disparity in cultural backgrounds.

The social role of engineering cannot overlook military engineering the activity from which modernengineering is derivedas one of the most controversial facets of that role (Mitcham and Siekevitz,1989). Although military engineering is not viewed by everyone as fulfilling a useful social role, it iscrucial for the survival and success of a society. The importance of that social role to the long-termfuture of a society can be a

week 4_social and cultural dimensions

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