Chapter SixChapter Six

Attention and Memory

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The Information Processing Model

Learning ObjectivesWhat are the primary aspects of the

information-processing model?What are the areas where we observe

differential age changes in attention and memory?

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The Information Processing Model

Information-processing approach Uses a computer metaphor to explain

how people process stimuli The information-processing approach is

based on three assumptions:1. People are active participants in the process.2. Both quantitative (how much) and

qualitative (what kind) aspects of performance can be examined.

3. Information is processed through a series of hypothetical stages or stores.

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The Information Processing Model

Three fundamental questions:

1. Which areas show evidence of age differences in the aspects of processing? Early stages (attention) Secondary memory Long term memory

2. How can we explain variability when we find age differences in information processing?

3. What are the practical implications of age-related changes in information processing?

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The Information Processing Model

Attentional and Perceptual Processing Sensory memory

Where new, incoming information is first registered

Large amounts of information very rapidly

Memory details are dependent on how much attention is given to the stimuli.

If attention is given, then the info is passed to the next stage of memory.

Age differences are not typically found at this stage; however, they do begin to appear when attentional processes are applied to sensory memory. (ability to direct & sustain attention, and the speed at which information is processed)

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Attentional Control

Learning ObjectivesWhat is processing speed? What age

differences are found?What are the processing resources that

underlie information processing?What is inhibition loss? When are age

differences found?What are attentional resources? Under what

conditions are age differences observed?How do automatic and effortful processes

differ? In what situations are age differences present?

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Attentional Control

Speed of ProcessingHow quickly and efficiently these early

steps in information processing are completedSlowing of processing is task-specific.

Processing ResourcesThe amount of attention one has to apply

to a particular situationThere have been a number of alternative ways

of examining a process resource hypothesis. Two of those are:

Inhibitory loss Attentional loss

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Attentional Control

Inhibitory lossTheory: Older persons have task-irrelevant

thoughts that interfere with processing.Other research shows inhibition is not

universal across all aspects of stimulation.Certain strategies can compensate for

irrelevant information interference.Is there a purpose for older persons

attending to irrelevant information? (increased problem solving skills)

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Attentional Control

Attentional ResourcesDivided attention (how much info can be processed at

any given time)

Older person are more penalized when they must divide their attention and find it more difficult to multitask.Writing while listeningConversing while driving

Extensive practice can minimize the poor performance on multitasking.

Older adults use strategies to compensate for inability to multitask. (most important tasks first)

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Memory Processes

Learning ObjectivesWhat is working memory? What age

differences have been found in working memory?

How does implicit and explicit memory differ across age?

How does episodic and semantic memory performance differ across age?

What age differences have been found in the autobiographical aspects of episodic memory?

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Working MemoryThe active processes and structures

involved in holding information in mindSimultaneously using that information,

sometimes in conjunction with incoming information to:Solve a problemMake a decision Learn new information

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Memory Processes

Implicit versus Explicit Memory

Explicit memory (declarative)Intentional and conscious remembering of

information that is learned at a specific point in timeAn example is remembering who wrote the

Gettysburg address.

Implicit memory (procedural memory)Retrieval of information without conscious or

intentional recollectionAn example is a language task such as stem

completion.Smaller age differences that explicit memory

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Memory Processes

Long Term MemoryThe ability to remember extensive

amounts of information from a few seconds, hours, or decades.

Semantic MemoryLearning and remembering the meaning of

words and concepts that are not tied to specific occurrences of events in time

Episodic MemoryConscious recollection of information from a

specific event or point in time

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Memory Processes

Autobiographical MemoryInvolves remembering information and

events from our own lifeIt is a form of episodic memory.

Flashbulb memories Vivid memories of very personal or

emotional events Weddings September 11, 2001

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Memory Processes

Factors Affecting Age Differences in Memory

Learning ObjectivesWhat evidence is there for age differences in

encoding?What age differences have been observed in

retrieval?What are the relative contributions of encoding and

retrieval in explaining age differences in performance? How does a neuroscience perspective help us understand these contributions?

How does automatic retrieval affect age differences in memory?

What age differences have been observed in processing misinformation as true?

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Factors Affecting Age Differences in Memory

Age Differences in Encoding versus Retrieval

Encoding Elaborative rehearsal involves making

connections between incoming information and information already known.

Use of strategies during encodingOrganizeEstablish links

Older persons are not as effective in strategies as younger.

Cognitive Neuroscience RevisitedPet scans show age differences in encoding.

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Factors Affecting Age Differences in Memory

The Emerging Role of Automatic RetrievalFalse-fame effect

Mistaking familiarity for fame Results indicate older persons have a deficit in retrieval.

Misinformation and memorySource memory

The ability to remember the source of a familiar event as well as if the event is real or imagined (took meds vs. thought about taking meds)

False Memory When one remembers items or events that did not occur

Remembering childhood abuse that never happened Picking a person out of a lineup that is innocent

Study: shown pics of perpetrators & innocent bystanders; week later: had trouble picking out the perpetrator (trouble with context memory)

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Memory for Discourse

Learning ObjectivesWhat age differences are observed in

text-based levels of memory for discourse?

What age differences are observed for situation models of discourse memory?

What social factors and characteristics of individuals influence memory for discourse?

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Memory for Discourse

Text-Based LevelsResearch date reveals two important points

With clearly organized text, older adults are similar to younger in recalling more main ideas than details.

Rapid presentation of unorganized material puts older adults at a disadvantage compare to younger.

Does it make a difference if new information agrees or disagrees with what people already know?Older adults recall less if the new information

contradicts previously held beliefs.

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Memory for Discourse

Situation ModelsDifferent people remember differently

depending on their situation.Older and younger use similar updating

strategies; however, the process is more effortful for the older.

Another performance variable is prior knowledge or experience. Both older and younger do better on familiar material.

Memory research must consider multiple factors other than age.

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Memory in Context

Learning ObjectivesWhat age differences are there in

prospective memory?What are some factors that help

preserve memory as we grow older?

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Memory in Context

Prospective MemoryInvolves remembering to perform a

planned action in the future (remembering to remember)Older patients remember to take medication

better than busy middle-aged patients.

Differences between event-related and time-related future events.Time based remembering is more age

related.Difficult or complex prospective tasks are not

remembered well by older adults.Self-generated memory cues help.

Notes on a calendar, medication dispensers with time/date cues

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Memory in Context

Factors That Preserve MemoryCognitive Reserve

Factors that lessen decline by providing flexibility in responding and adapting to changes in the environment

Exercising memoryThinking of memory as a mental muscle

Multilingualism and Cognitive FunctioningResearch suggests that older adults who speak four

or more languages had the best cognitive state independent of education.

Semantic Memory in Service of Episodic MemoryOlder adults are better at memory of related as

opposed to unrelated word pairs.

Negative Stereotypes and Memory Performance1.Older adults do worse on memory task if they believe

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Self-Evaluations of Memory Abilities

Learning ObjectivesWhat are the major types of memory self-

evaluations?What age differences have been found in

metamemory?How do younger and older adults

compare on memory monitoring tasks? How is task experience important?

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Self-Evaluations of Memory Abilities

Aspects of Memory Self-evaluationsMetamemory – knowledge about how memory

works and what we believe is true about it

Memory Monitoring – awareness of what we are doing with our memory right now

Age Differences in MetamemoryOlder adults

Seem to know less about how memory works than younger

View memory as less stableExpect that memory will deterioratePerceive they have less control over memory

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Self-Evaluations of Memory Abilities

The Role of Memory Self-EfficacyMemory self-efficacy – the belief that one

will be able to perform a specific taskDifferent than metamemory in that one may

know a good deal about how memory works, but still believe they possess low ability to perform a specific memory task.

Memory successes tend to bolster self-efficacy, and failures reduce one’s belief of memory competence.

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Self-Evaluations of Memory Abilities

Age Differences in Memory MonitoringResearchers ask to predict how well they

will do on a memory task.Predictions without experience

Older adults tend to over estimate how well they will do compared to younger.

Predictions after experience Older adults are just as accurate as younger.

Regardless of age, adults overestimate performance on recall tasks but underestimate performance on recognition tasks.

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Memory Training

Learning ObjectivesWhat are the major ways that memory

skills are trained? How effective are these methods?

What are the key individual difference variables in memory training?

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Memory Training

Training Memory SkillsE – I – E – I – O Strategy

External aids Notebooks or calendars

Internal aids Mental processes, rote rehearsal, method of loci,

mnemonicsExplicit (direct aids) (intentionally remembering information that was learned at a

specific time)Implicit (indirect aids) (retrieval of information without conscious effort)O! or Aha! (suddenly remembering)

Memory DrugsOnly modest, short term improvement No medical breakthroughs

Combining StrategiesWhat works with one may not work for all

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Clinical Issues and Memory Testing

Learning ObjectivesWhat is the difference between normal

and abnormal memory aging?What is the connection between memory

and mental health?How is memory affected by nutrition and

drugs?

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Clinical Issues and Memory Testing

Normal versus Abnormal Memory AgingDistinguish by asking if changes disrupt a

person’s ability to function in everyday lifeRepeatedly forgetting to turn off the stoveForgets the way home

Alzheimer’sProgressive destruction of memory

Wernicke-Korsakoff Loss of recent memory and sometimes inability

to form new memory

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Clinical Issues and Memory Testing

Memory and Mental HealthDepression

Feelings of helplessness and hopelessness

DementiasDeclines in cognitive performance

Irreversible and untreatable

Studies found that negative effects of depression on memory are greater in young and middle-aged than in older adults.

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Clinical Issues and Memory Testing

Memory, Nutrition, and DrugsLittle is known about the effects of nutrition

on memory.

Alcohol and caffeine, if abused, will affect memory.

Sedatives and tranquilizers have been found to impair memory.

Mini-Mental Status Exam