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Enhancing Risk Perception in Engineering Education

Institut National de lEnvironnementIndustriel et des

RisquesFrance

cole Nationale Suprieure

dIngnieurs de BourgesFrance

Department of Earth Science, University of

Florence, ItalyInstitut National

Polytechnique de Lorraine France

DG Education & Culture

Tempus CD-JEP 30095/2002Enhancing Risk Perception in Engineering Education

Basics of Risk Management Compiled by Project Risk Team Member

Dr. Alim Hashem El Sayed

JEP 30095

December 2005

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Acknowledgement

This introductory manuscript is planned for initiating undergraduate

engineering students on the principles and basics of risk assessment.

The manuscript is divided into six chapters: chapters 1 & 2 are basic

definitions. The author, Dr. Abdel Alim \hashem, and Risk Project Team

are indebted to Dr. Yasser El Shayeb, Assisstant Professor, Mining,

Petroleum and Metallurgical Engineering Department, CUFE for

supplying the main material for Chapters 3 and 4. Chapters 5 and 6 are

succinctness compiled from references cited at the end of the manuscript.

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Purpose The purpose of this course is to provide the students with a structured system for identifying hazard, assessing risks associated with those hazards, putting measures to control the unacceptable risks and to review the control measures to ensure they are effective and have not introduced new hazards. This called Risk Management Process

Objectives

1. Assess and analysis risk in oil and gas production operations. 2. Discuss the advantages, limitations and range of applicability of

each hazard analysis method so that its selection and integration into the overall process is fully understood presenting a generic overview on the hazard identification.

3. HAZOP analysis and its identification. 4. Learn the basic vocabulary unique to the hazard and operability in

industrial plants. 5. Raise general awareness of the need to apply hazard

identifications technique, HAZOP. 6. Share knowledge and experiences on HAZOP related issues in

different industrial plant. 7. Enable students to understand the impacts of industry activities on

the HSE to discuss on professional level the best practical solutions and make/advise on well informed decisions for industry activities.

8. Help participants to judge the HSE consequences of, and advise on mitigating measures, for industry activities.

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Table of Contents Purpose ................................................................................................................................3 Objectives.............................................................................................................................3 Table of Contents.................................................................................................................4 List of Figures ......................................................................................................................7 List of Tables .......................................................................................................................8 Chapter 1: Risk Definition and Accident Theory...............................................................9

1.1 Definitions ...................................................................................................................9 1.2 Basics of Risk Assessment .........................................................................................12

1.2.1 Risk assessment process ......................................................................................13 1.3 Accident Theory ........................................................................................................15

1.3.1 Single factor theory.............................................................................................17 1.3.2 Multiple factors theory ........................................................................................17 1.3.3 Domino effect theory ..........................................................................................18 1.3.4 Energy transfer theory.........................................................................................19 1.3.5 The Symptoms versus Causes theory ...............................................................20

1.4 Structure of Accidents................................................................................................20 1.5 The Role of Human Error in Accidents ......................................................................21

1.5.1 The traditional concept of human error................................................................21 1.5.2 Classification of human errors.............................................................................22 1.5.3 Classifying active failures ...................................................................................23 1.5.4 Latent failures .....................................................................................................25 1.5.5 Strategies for reducing human error.....................................................................26 1.5.6 Actions for overcoming active failures ................................................................26

1.6 Reasons for Preventing Accidents ..............................................................................28 1.6.1 Moral ..................................................................................................................28 1.6.2 Costs ...................................................................................................................28 1.6.3 Legislation ..........................................................................................................30 1.5.4 Accident trends ...................................................................................................31

1.7 Summary ...................................................................................................................31

Chapter 2: Importance of Risk Management..................................................................33 2.1 Importance.................................................................................................................33 2.2 Principle of Risk Management ...................................................................................33 2.3 Hazard Identifications ................................................................................................33

2.3.1 Previous accident reports.....................................................................................34 2.3.2 Physical inspection of the workplace...................................................................34 2.3.3 Brainstorming .....................................................................................................38 2.3.4 Knowledge of employees ....................................................................................39 2.3.5 Trade journals .....................................................................................................39 2.3.6 OSHA (Occupational Safety & Hazard Administration) publication and safety alerts ............................................................................................................................43 2.3.7 Manufacturers instruction books..........................................................................46 2.3.8 Sample inspection worksheet ..............................................................................46

2.4 Risk Examples in Pictures..........................................................................................48 2.5 Common Risks Associated with New Project.............................................................54

2.5.1 Staff risks............................................................................................................55 2.5.2 Equipment risks ..................................................................................................55

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2.5.3 Client risks ..........................................................................................................55 2.5.4 Scope risks ..........................................................................................................55 2.5.5 Technology risks .................................................................................................56 2.5.6 Delivery risks......................................................................................................56 2.5.7 Physical risks ......................................................................................................56 2.5.8 Political risks ......................................................................................................56 2.5.9 Financial risks .....................................................................................................56 2.5.10 Environmental risks ..........................................................................................57

Chapter 3 Identification of Risks ......................................................................................58 3.1 Preliminary Risk Analysis (PRA)...............................................................................59 3.2 Failure Modes, Effect and Criticality Analysis (FMECA) ..........................................60

3.2.1 Objectives and domains of applications ...............................................................60 3.2.2 Preparation for the study and the methodology of analysis ..................................61

3.3 HAZOP .....................................................................................................................63 3.3.1 What is HAZOP? ................................................................................................63 3.3.2 When is a HAZOP Carried Out? .........................................................................66 3.3.3 Some Points to Watch during HAZOP ................................................................66

3.4 What is Risk Assessment?..........................................................................................67 3.4.1 Likelihood...........................................................................................................68 3.4.2 Consequences......................................................................................................70 3.4.3 Risk matrix .........................................................................................................72 3.4.5 Risk management worksheets..............................................................................73

3.5 Risk Control ..............................................................................................................74 3.5.1 Hierarchy of control ............................................................................................75 3.5.2 Elimination .........................................................................................................75 3.5.3 Substitution.........................................................................................................76 3.5.4 Separation ...........................................................................................................76 3.5.5 Administration ....................................................................................................76 3.5.6 Personal protective equipment (PPE)...................................................................77

3.6 Apply Hierarchy of Control .......................................................................................79 3.7 Monitoring and Review .............................................................................................80 3.8 Conclusion.................................................................................................................80

Chapter 4 Methods of System Analysis ............................................................................82 4.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................82 4.2 Markov Chains ..........................................................................................................82

4.2.1 Presentation of the Process ..................................................................................83 4.3 PETRI Network .........................................................................................................85 4.4 Simulation, (The Monte Carlo Technique) .................................................................87 4.5 Fault Trees.................................................................................................................88

4.5.1 The construction of the tree. ................................................................................88 4.6 Critical Analysis of System (Simulation) ...................................................................89

4.6.1 Example 1: simulation of a CPM network ...........................................................89 4.6.2 Results ................................................................................................................92

Chapter 5: The Process of Fire Risk Management ..........................................................93 5.1 Methodology of Hazard Identification........................................................................93 5.2 Fire Risk Assessment .................................................................................................94

5.2.1 The primary steps in fire risk assessment include: ...............................................94 5.2.2 Type of risk assessment.......................................................................................95 5.2.3 Risk management ................................................................................................95

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5.2.4 Risk management for handling fire risk exposure ................................................96 5.2.5 Cost /benefit analysis ..........................................................................................96 5.2.6 Development and monitoring of loss control program .........................................96 5.2.7 Fire prevention....................................................................................................97

Chapter 6: Summary of Risk Assessment Steps in Workplace .......................................98 6.1 Step 1: Look for The Hazards ....................................................................................99 6.2 Step 2: Decide Who Might Be Harmed, and How ......................................................99 6.3 Step 3: Evaluate The Risks And Decide Whether Existing Precautions Are Adequate or More Should Be Done. ....................................................................................................99 6.4 Step 4: Record Your Findings ..................................................................................101 6.5 Step 5: Review Your Assessment and Revise It If Necessary ...................................101

Acronyms .........................................................................................................................102 Appendices.......................................................................................................................104

Appendix 1: Some Important Pieces of Health and Safety Legislation ...........................104 A.1.1 Besides the Health and Safety at Work Act itself, the following apply across the full range of workplaces:............................................................................................104 A.1.2 specific regulations cover particular areas, as asbestos and lead,.......................105

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List of Figures

Figure 1: Elements of risk assessment..................................................................................12 Figure 2: Risk assessment process .......................................................................................14 Figure 3: Risk assessment methods......................................................................................14 Figure 4: Gas pipeline fire ...................................................................................................15 Figure 5: Human Fall from a ship ........................................................................................16 Figure 6: Fire in an offshore oil and gas production platform...............................................16 Figure 7: Causes of workplace fatalities...............................................................................16 Figure 8: Domino theory illustration....................................................................................18 Figure 9: Structure of accident.............................................................................................20 Figure 10: Classification of human failure ...........................................................................24 Figure 11: Cost of accidents in USA....................................................................................29 Figure 12: Insurance and accident costs ..............................................................................30 Figure 13: Slipping or tripping at work................................................................................48 Figure 14: Getting into contact with hazardous material (asbestos, fumes, etc. )...................49 Figure 15: Performing work at height ..................................................................................49 Figure 16: Handling, transporting or supporting loads while suffering from sprains, strains, or pains....................................................................................................................................49 Figure 17: Having long exposure to computers or other display screen equipment ...............50 Figure 18: Working at a noisy place: causes hearing loss or deafness...................................50 Figure 19: Predictable or unpredictable, controlled or uncontrolled risk associated with natural or climate phenomena. .............................................................................................50 Figure 20: Being exposed to vibration .................................................................................51 Figure 21: Getting hurt by electricity ...................................................................................52 Figure 22: Neglecting maintenance or doing unsafe maintenance work................................52 Figure 23: Improper selection of work equipment................................................................53 Figure 24: Risks resulting from transport, road traffic, road conditions ................................53 Figure 25: Risk associated with pressure systems ................................................................53 Figure 26: Risks resulting from fire or explosions or use or storage of explosive materials or chemicals ............................................................................................................................54 Figure 27: Feeling stressed by work.....................................................................................54 Figure 28: Identification and analysis of risk .......................................................................58 Figure 29: Preparation of the analysis ..................................................................................62 Figure 30: Flow chart of the method HAZOP ......................................................................65 Figure 31: Five degree probability (likelihood) scale ...........................................................69 Figure 32: Four degree probability (likelihood) scale ...........................................................69 Figure 33: Five degree consequences (severity) scale ..........................................................71 Figure 34: Four degree consequences (severity) scale ..........................................................72 Figure 35: 9X9 risk matrix..................................................................................................73 Figure 36: Risk matrix after applying preventive measures ..................................................75 Figure 37: Stochastic Processes ...........................................................................................83 Figure 38: Parallel system of two components .....................................................................83 Figure 39: Graphical Presentation of the System..................................................................85 Figure 40: PETRI networks .................................................................................................86 Figure 41: Network model of the Project .............................................................................90 Figure 42: Final critical paths for the network......................................................................92 Figure 43: Hazard identification ..........................................................................................93

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List of Tables

Table 1: Inspection report ....................................................................................................37 Table 2: Sample inspection worksheet .................................................................................47 Table 3: Sample inspection of pizza shop ............................................................................48 Table 4: Maximum daily duration per day for sound levels ..................................................51 Table 5: Action and corresponding sound level....................................................................52 Table 6: Some of the physical risks originats from work operations ....................................57 Table 7: PRA......................................................................................................................59 Table 8: Deviation generated by each guide word................................................................64 Table 9: HAZOP ................................................................................................................67 Table 10: Risk matrix based on consequences and likelihood ..............................................72 Table 11: Example of risk management worksheet ..............................................................74 Table 12: Protective requirement for eye, head, and foot/toe................................................77 Table 13: Protective requirement for hand, hearing and respiratory......................................78 Table 14: Different states of the system. ..............................................................................84 Table 15: Random observations ...........................................................................................91 Table 16: Critical Index of activities (activities with * means that it was on the Critical Path in this sample). ....................................................................................................................91

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Chapter 1: Risk Definition and Accident Theory

1.1 Definitions The term risk is used in a variety of ways in everyday speech. It is frequently to refer to activities such as rock-climbing or day-trading stocks as risky; or discuss risk of getting the flu this coming winter. In the case of rock-climbing and day-trading, risky is used to mean hazardous or dangerous. In the latter reference, risk refers to the probability of a defined outcome (the chance of contracting the flu). Before beginning a discussion of risk assessment, it is important to provide a clear definition of the term risk and some of the other terminology used in the risk assessment field. For the purposes of this course, discussion will be limited to the risk of unintended incidents occurring which may threaten the safety of individuals, the environment or a facilitys physical assets. In this setting, a number of terms have to be defined:

Hazards or Threats: are conditions which exist and may potentially lead to an undesirable event.

Controls: are the measures taken to prevent hazards from causing undesirable events. Controls can be physical (safety shutdowns, redundant controls, conservative designs, etc.), procedural (written operating procedures), and can address human factors (employee selection, training, supervision).

Health: Acute and chronic ill health caused by physical, chemical or biological agents as well as adverse effects on mental health.

Event: is an occurrence that has an associated outcome. There are typically a number of potential outcomes from any one initial event which may range in severity from trivial to catastrophic, depending upon other conditions and add-on events.

Risk: is composed of two elements, frequency and consequence. Risk is defined as the product of the frequency with which an event

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is anticipated to occur and the consequence of the events outcome.

Risk = Frequency Consequence

Frequency or likelihood or probability: The frequency of a

potential undesirable event is expressed as events per unit time, usually per year. The frequency should be determined from historical data if a significant number of events have occurred in the past. Often, however, risk analyses focus on events with more severe consequences (and low frequencies) for which little historical data exist. In such cases, the event frequency is calculated using risk assessment models.

Consequence or severity or gravity: can be expressed as the

number of people affected (injured or killed), property damaged, amount of spill, area affected, outage time, mission delay, dollars lost, etc. Regardless of the measure chosen, the consequences are expressed per event. Thus the above equation has the units events/year times consequences/event, which equals consequences/year, the most typical quantitative risk measure.

Hazard Effect The consequences, which could result from a hazard being realized

Types of hazards:-

Biological hazards Bacteria

Environmental Wastes &Toxic gases

Social and Loss of Image Loss of image of department or organization as a result of conditions and hazards contained in the building

Human Irresponsible behaviors, being careless

Managerial Loss of control

Electrical Eclectic shock could lead to fire, explosion, equipment failure, and people fatalities

Mechanical Mechanical failure could lead to equipment damage

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Radiation Radioactive hazards Radiation hazards may emanate from the use of mobile phones and interference with lab equipment!

Chemical Flammable and toxic materials could lead to chemical hazards.

Infrastructural Short windows, broken glass, lift problems.

Economical Any shortage in the faculty budget could lead to economical hazard

Fire/Explosion Any source of fire plus oxygen could lead to big losses.

Natural Any natural situation a such as flood, hurricanes, earthquake, landslide

Risk Matrix: Represents the relation between the probability and the

severity

The Residual Risk: The residual risk after Appling the method which reduce the hazard

Significant: Indicates that a Hazard or a Risk is anything other than

trivial. A significant risk is one which requires some form of positive safeguard to eliminate it or reduce it to an acceptable level.

Task: An individual work assignment carried out by one or more

persons. Risks arise from the interaction of people, equipment, materials and the work environment. For the purposes of this practice, they can be described as follows:

Task-related Effect, caused by the activities of people in the workplace

Inherent

It is an effect associated with the design of the workplace, its equipment and its location.

Process-related: Effect, arising from the process being carried out, the properties of the fluid and the process condition

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Safety Measures

A precautionary measures which prevents or reduces a risk. Safety measures can be classified as physical, procedural, human, time-related or contingency.

1.2 Basics of Risk Assessment Risk assessment is the process of gathering data and synthesizing information to develop an understanding of the risk of a particular enterprise. To gain an understanding of the risk of an operation, one must answer the following three questions:

1. What can go wrong? 2. How likely is it? 3. What are the impacts?

Qualitative answers to one or more of these questions are often sufficient for making good decisions. However, as managers seek more detailed cost/benefit information upon which to base their decisions, they may wish to use quantitative risk assessment (QRA) methods. Both qualitative and quantitative methods are discussed in this document. Figure 1 below illustrates the elements of Risk Assessment.

Figure 1: Elements of risk assessment More details about the tools and methods available for conducting risk assessments, considerations for setting up an assessment, information about relevant regulatory requirements and examples of risk

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assessment applications will be provided. Before initiating a risk assessment, all parties involved should have a common understanding of the goals of the exercise, the methods to be used, the resources required, and how the results will be applied. 1.2.1 Risk assessment process To use a systematic method to determine risk levels, the Risk Assessment Process is applied. This process consists of four basic steps:

1. Hazard Identification 2. Frequency Assessment 3. Consequence Assessment, and 4. Risk Evaluation

The level of information needed to make a decision varies widely. In some cases, after identifying the hazards, qualitative methods of assessing frequency and consequence are satisfactory to enable the risk evaluation. In other cases, a more detailed quantitative analysis is required. The Risk Assessment Process is illustrated in Figure 2, and the results possible from qualitative and quantitative approaches are described. There are many different analysis techniques and models that have been developed to aid in conducting risk assessments. Some of these methods are summarized in Figure 3. A key to any successful risk analysis is choosing the right method (or combination of methods) for the situation at hand. For each step of the Risk Assessment Process, this part provides a brief introduction to some of the analysis methods available and suggests risk analysis approaches to support different types of decision making within the maritime and offshore industries. For more information on applying a particular method or tool, the following chapters will identify clearly the steps followed for risk assessment. It should be noted that some of these methods (or slight variations) can be used for more than one step in the risk assessment process. For example, every tree analysis can be used for frequency assessment as well as for consequence assessment. Figure 3 lists the methods only under the most common step to avoid repetitions.

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Figure 2: Risk assessment process

Figure 3: Risk assessment methods

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1.3 Accident Theory The increasing size and complexity of industrial processes creates increased scope for major disasters, leading to greatly increased public concern about industrial safety. The last two decades have seen a series of such disasters both world-wide (e.g. Bhopal, Seveso, and Cheroybl) and the UK (e.g. Clapham Junction, Kings Cross, Piper Alpha, Herald of Free Enterprise, Ladbrock Grove, Paddington) and in Egypt (e.g. Salim Furry, Upper Egypt Train). In the UK, the 1990 Labor Force Survey stated that there were an estimated 1.6 million accidents at work where 750,000 people suffered ill health caused or made worse by working conditions. In all 30 million working days were lost in which 20,000 people were forced to give up work. It is estimated that each year there are 3 million fatalities resulting from accidents or poisoning, the majority of which occur in under developing countries. Occupational accidents, defined as those accidents that occur at the place of work, are also of major concern. Each year 180,000 people are killed as a result of accidents at work, whilst 110 million are injured (Harms Ringdahl, 1992). According to data collected in 1988 (Hoyos & Zimolong, 1988), in the USA a fatal accident occurs every 6 minutes, a fatal occupational injury occurs every 46 minutes and a work accident that results in an injury occurs every 17 seconds. In 1992, more then 86,000 people died in the US. The following figures show some accidents and workplace fatalities.

Figure 4: Gas pipeline fire

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Figure 5: Human Fall from a ship

Figure 6: Fire in an offshore oil and gas production platform

Heart Attacks/Strickes

13%

Stuck by Moving Falling or

Stationary Objects19%Caught between

Objects/Equipm ent5%

Airplanes5%

Motor Vehicles34%

Miscellaneous11%

Gunshot Wounds5%

Slips and Falls8%

Figure 7: Causes of workplace fatalities

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There are some theories concerning the causes of accidents to give us an insight into how we should approach the task of risk management. 1.3.1 Single factor theory This theory stems from the assumption that an accident is a result of a single cause. If this single cause can be identified and eliminated, the accident will not be repeated. People who have even the most basic of risk training do not accept this theory. Example: A person in a hurry walks through a poorly lit area and trips over a piece of wood. Single Factor Theory Solution: Remove the offending piece of wood to solve the problem. Reality: Accidents always have more than one contributing factor 1.3.2 Multiple factors theory It says that an accident occurs when a number of factors act together to cause an accident. This and similar ideas are favored by most experienced risk participations Example: A person in a hurry walks through a poorly lit area and trips over a piece of wood. Multiple Factors Theory Solution: this theory would require answers to such question as: Was there a necessity for the person to walk in that area or was there a safer route? If the person was not in a hurry, would he have been more aware of their surroundings and avoided the wood? If the area were better lit, would the person have avoided the wood? Could the wood have been removed?

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The answer of these questions shows that not only the person is responsible for the accident. 1.3.3 Domino effect theory

According to W.H. Heinrich (1931), who developed the so-called domino theory, 88% of all accidents are caused by unsafe acts of people, 10% by unsafe actions and 2% by acts of God. He proposed a five-factor accident sequence in which each factor would actuate the next step in the manner of toppling dominoes lined up in a row. The sequence of accident factors is as follows:

1. Ancestry and social environment: Those conditions that make us take or accept risk.

2. Worker fault or Undesirable Human Trait: Anger, careless, tiredness, lack of understanding, un-attention.

3. Unsafe act or condition together with mechanical and physical hazard: Poor planning, unsafe equipment, hazardous environment.

4. Accident: The accident occurs when the above events conspire (combine) to cause something to go wrong.

5. Damage or injury: Injury occurs when the person sustains damage.

Figure 8: Domino theory illustration

Often accidents occur without injury and they are referred to as near misses. All too often, these near misses are ignored until, figuratively speaking, the last domino is knocked over and the injury occurs.

In the same way that the removal of a single domino in the row would interrupt the sequence of toppling, Heinrich suggested that removal of one of the factors would prevent the accident and resultant injury; with

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the key domino to be removed from the sequence being number 3. Although Heinrich provided no data for his theory, it nonetheless represents a useful point to start discussion and a foundation for future research.

The domino theory has its merits but may be too limited to consistently reflect reality. A more accurate picture of reality may gain by combining the elements of the Multiple Factors Theory and the Domino Effect. 1.3.4 Energy transfer theory It states that accidents are more likely to happen at or during a transfer of energy. The rate of energy release is important because the greater the rate of release the greater the potential for damage. It should be noted that this concept of identifying hazards is very limited and not dissimilar to the Single Factor theory. Factors other than energy release are important.

Those who accept the energy transfer theory put forward the claim that a worker incurs injury or equipment suffers damage through a change of energy, and that for every change of energy there is a source, a path and a receiver. This theory is useful for determining injury causation and evaluating energy hazards and control methodology. Strategies can be developed which are preventive, limiting or ameliorating with respect to the energy transfer. Control of energy transfer at the source can be achieved by the following means:

Elimination of the source Changes made to the design or specification of elements of the

work station Preventive maintenance.

The path of energy transfer can be modified by:

Enclosure of the path Installation of barriers Installation of absorbers Positioning of isolators.

The receiver of energy transfer can be assisted by adopting the following measures:

Limitation of exposure Use of personal protective equipment

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1.3.5 The Symptoms versus Causes theory

The symptoms versus causes theory is not so much a theory as an admonition to be heeded if accident causation is to be understood. Usually, when investigating accidents, we tend to fasten upon the obvious causes of the accident to the neglect of the root causes. Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions are the symptomsthe proximate causesand not the root causes of the accident.

1.4 Structure of Accidents

The belief that accidents are caused and can be prevented makes it imperative for us to study those factors which are likely to favor the occurrence of accidents. By studying such factors, the root causes of accidents can be isolated and necessary steps can be taken to prevent the recurrence of the accidents. These root causes of accidents can be grouped as immediate and contributing. The immediate causes are unsafe acts of the worker and unsafe working conditions. The contributing causes could be management-related factors, the environment and the physical and mental condition of the worker. A combination of causes must converge in order to result in an accident.

Figure 9: Structure of accident

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1.5 The Role of Human Error in Accidents Although the role that human error plays in accident causation has been accepted for many years, it is only recently that a lot of concerted effort has been put into detailed research into human error in accidents. Beyond the technical issues two common points emerged strongly from the inquiries into these accidents, which are: The influence of human error in the chain of events leading to the

accident; Failures in the management and organization of safety. People can cause or contribute to accidents (or mitigate the

consequences) in a number of ways through a failure a person can directly cause an accident. However, people tend not to make such errors deliberately. We are often set up to fail by the way that our brain processes information by our training, through the design of equipment and procedures and even through the culture of the organization that we work for.

People can make disastrous decisions even when they are aware of the risks. We can also misinterpret a situation and act inappropriately as a result. Both of these can lead to the escalation of an incident.

On the other hand we can intervene to stop potential accidents. Many companies have their own anecdotes about recovery from a potential incident through the timely actions of individuals. Mitigation of the possible effects of an incident can result from human resourcefulness and ingenuity.

The degree of loss of life can be reduced by the emergency response of operators and crew. Emergency planning and response including appropriate training can significantly improve rescue situations.

1.5.1 The traditional concept of human error Traditionally the promotion of safety has been largely reactive, concentrating on accident investigation with the primary aim of avoiding repeat events. In part this arose from too simple an approach to accident causation based on the apparent importance placed on the concept of a single primary cause; either an unsafe act or an unsafe condition (as a result of the domino theory). If the former were the case, responsibility was clear and blame could be apportioned. If the latter was the case then a technical solution could be sought. In part this also

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arose from the fact that a reactive approach, based on a single primary cause was also an easy approach to handle. Taking a blame approach to human error in accidents provides little of use in terms of future accident prevention. For example, if one made a mistake which resulted in an accident and we work on the basis of a blame approach then there are only three options available to us: We accept that human error is inevitable, shrug weir shoulders, tell

him to be a bit more careful and carry on as before with weir fingers crossed.

Alternatively, we can say as he was responsible, we should discipline him, perhaps even sack him.

The third option is a half-way house whereby we give him the benefit of the doubt and decide that he might need retraining. However, if all we have found out about the accident was that he was the cause we have learnt nothing new on which to base the retraining. We will almost certainly therefore be reduced to repeating the training which we know has already failed!

Unfortunately this is a pretty reasonable description of the approach to human error in accidents that has existed in most industrial organizations for years. If accidents are to be prevented in the future it is no use whatsoever to blame people for their mistakes unless we have a detailed understanding of what caused the mistakes. Only by understanding all the issues which have caused (or could cause) an accident can we identify the way to prevent future accidents 1.5.2 Classification of human errors The term human error is wide and can include a great variety of human behaviour. Therefore, in attempting to define human error, different classification systems have been developed to describe their nature. Identifying why these errors occur will ultimately assist in reducing the likelihood of such errors occurring. The distinction between the hands on operator errors and those made by other aspects of the organization has been described as active and latent failures. Active Failures have an immediate consequence and are usually made by front-line people such as drivers, control room and machine

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operators. These immediately proceed, and are the direct cause, of the accident. Latent failures are those aspects of the organization which can immediately predispose active failures. Common examples of latent failures include (HSE, 1999):

Poor design of plant and equipment; Ineffective training; Inadequate supervision; Ineffective communications; and Uncertainties in roles and responsibilities.

Latent failures are crucially important to accident prevention for two reasons:

1. If they are not resolved, the probability of repeat (or similar) accidents remains high regardless of what other action is taken;

2. As one latent failure often influences several potential errors, removing latent failures can be a very cost-effective route to accident prevention.

1.5.3 Classifying active failures The classification of active failures distinguishes between intentional and unintentional error. Intentional errors are described as violations, whilst unintentional errors are classified as either slips/lapses or mistakes. These types of human failure are shown in the diagram below (HSE, 1999), Figure 10:

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Knowledge-based

Rule-based Slips of action

Lapses of memory

Violations Human Errors

Mistakes Skill-based errorsRoutine

Situational

Exceptional

Human Failures

Figure 10: Classification of human failure

Slips and Lapses: These occur in routine tasks with operators who know the process well and are experienced in their work: They are action errors which occur whilst the task is being carried out; They often involved missing a step out of a sequence or getting steps

in the wrong order and frequently arise from a lapse of attention; Operating the wrong control through a lapse in attention or

accidentally selecting the wrong gear are typical examples. Mistakes: These are inadvertent errors and occur when the elements of a task are being considered by the operator. They are decisions that are subsequently found to be wrong, although at the time the operator would have believed them to be correct. There are two types of mistake (HSE, 1999), rule based and knowledge based: Rule based mistakes occur when the operation in hand is governed

by a series of rules. The error occurs when an in appropriate action is tied to a particular event

Knowledge based errors occur in entirely novel situations when you are beyond your skills, beyond the provision of the rules and you have to rely entirely on adapting your basic knowledge and experience to deal with a new problem.

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Violations are any deliberate deviation from the rules, procedures, instructions and regulations, which are deemed necessary for the safe or efficient operation and maintenance of plant or equipment. Breaches in these rules could be accidental/unintentional or deliberate. Violations occur for many reasons, and are seldom willful acts of sabotage or vandalism. The majority stem from a genuine desire to perform work satisfactorily given the constraints and expectations that exist. Violations are divided into three categories: routine, situational and exceptional (HSE, 1999). Routine Violations are ones where breaking the rule or procedure has become the normal way of working. The violating behavior is normally automatic and unconscious but the violation is recognized as such, by the individual(s) if questioned. This can be due to cutting corners, saving time. or be due to a belief that the rules are no longer applicable. Situational Violations occur because of limitations in the employees immediate work space or environment. These include the design and condition of the work area, time pressure, number of staff, supervision, equipment availability, and design and factors outside the organizations control, such as weather and time of day. These violations often occur when a rule is impossible or extremely difficult to work to in a particular situation. Exceptional Violations are violations that are rare and happen only in particular circumstances, often when something goes wrong. They occur to a large extent at the knowledge based level. The individual in attempting to solve a novel problem violates a rule to achieve the desired goal. 1.5.4 Latent failures Latent failures are the factors or circumstances within an organization which increase the likelihood of active failures. Consider some examples of latent failures in relation to the example accidents given earlier: The latent failures Kings Cross Underground Station Fire here included: While several minor escalator fires had occurred previously and had been investigated, apparently no one in the organization seriously considered the fact that a major escalator fire was a possibility - consequently, as the inquiry states, little effective action had been taken

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on the warnings provided by the minor fires. Similarly the inquiry also reported that there were serious flaws in the managerial and organizational responsibilities and accountability for safety with virtually all aspects of the organization thinking passenger safety was some one elses responsibility. The existence of these, and other similar, latent failures within the London Underground operation significantly increased the probability of a major escalator fire, with hindsight it was almost a matter of when rather than whether. It is also apparent, as suggested above, that unless the remedial action taken encompassed these organizational/management latent failures, that a repeat event was likely for, quite simply, the major influencing factors would have remained in place to predispose a similar event. 1.5.5 Strategies for reducing human error Reducing human error involves far more than taking disciplinary action against an individual. There are a range of measures which are more effective controls including the design of the equipment, job, procedures and training.

1.5.6 Actions for overcoming active failures 1.5.6.1 Slips and lapses Design improvement is the most effective route for eliminating the cause of this type of human error. For example, typical problems with controls and displays that cause this type of error include: Switches which are too close and can be inadvertently switched on or

off; Displays which force the user to bend or stretch to read them

properly;

Critical displays not in the operators field of view; Poorly designed gauges; Displays which are cluttered with non-essential information and are

difficult to read.

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1.5.6.2 Mistakes Training, for individuals and teams, is the most effective way for reducing mistake type human errors. The risk of this type of human error will be decreased if the trainee understands the need for and benefits from safe plans and actions rather than simply being able to recite the steps parrot fashion. Training should be based on defined training needs and objectives, and it should be evaluated to see if it has had the desired improvement in performance. 1.5.6.2 Violations There is no single best avenue for reducing the potential for deliberate deviations from safe rules and procedures. The avenues for reducing the probability of violations should be considered in terms of those which reduce an individual's motivation to violate. These include: Under-estimation of the risk Real or perceived pressure from the boss t adopt poor work practices; Pressure from work-mates to adopt their poor working practices;

Cutting corners to save time and effort 1.5.6.3 Addressing Latent Failures The organization must create an environment which:

Reduces the benefit to an individual from violating rules. Reduces the risk of an operator making slips/lapses and mistakes.

This can be done by identifying and addressing latent failures. Examples of latent failures include:

Poor design of plant and equipment; Impractical procedures, Ineffective training; Inadequate supervision;

Ineffective communications; and Uncertainties in roles and responsibilities.

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One of the principal ways of systematically doing this is through a health and safety management system. This is the subject of the next topic area in this course. 1.6 Reasons for Preventing Accidents There are three main reasons for preventing accidents and ill-health, these are moral/humane, cost and legislation. 1.6.1 Moral No-body comes to work to get injured or to become ill. No-one likes getting injured or seeing their colleagues or friends injured in accidents. Nothing is more important than the humane aspects of accidental loss: injury, pain, sorrow, anguish, loss of body particles or functions, occupational illness, disability and death. Employers and employees have a moral responsibility to prevent accidents and ill-health at work. 1.6.2 Costs

Whether or not people are hurt, accidents do cost organizations money and the actual injury or illness costs represent only a small part of the total. A recent study by the HSE has shown that for every 1 of insured costs (i.e. the actual cost of the injury or illness in terms of medical costs or compensation costs) the uninsured (or hidden costs) varied between 8 and 36. This has been traditionally depicted as an iceberg as the largest part of an iceberg is hidden under the sea

Even a simple or minor accident can be expensive. Some of the costs associated with accidents can be quickly identified such as medical treatment, lost wages and decreased productivity. These easily-identified expenses are often known as the "direct" costs associated with accidents. Less evident expenses associated with accidents are known as "indirect" or "hidden" costs and can be several times greater than the value of the direct costs. Listed below are just a few of the hidden costs associated with most accident.

1. The expense and time of finding a temporary replacement for the injured worker,

2. Time used by other employees to assist the injured worker,

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3. Time used by supervision to investigate the mishap, preparation of accident reports and adjustments made to work schedules,

4. Property damage to tools, materials and equipment, 5. Delays in accomplishment of work task by a group.

Indirect cost exists, varies greatly from case to case, and is often difficult to quantify. The main point to remember is that accidents are much more costly than just the basic or direct costs.

Property Damages18%

Fire Losses6%

Indirect Losses15% Wages Loss

26%

Medical Expenses16%Insurance

Adminstration19%

Figure 11: Cost of accidents in USA

Whether or not people are hurt, accidents do cost organizations money and the actual injury or illness costs represent only a small part of the total. A recent study by the HSE has shown that for every 1 of insured costs (i.e. the actual cost of the injury or illness in terms of medical costs or compensation costs) the uninsured (or hidden costs) varied between 8 and 36, Figure 12. This has been traditionally depicted as an iceberg as the largest part of an iceberg is hidden under the sea. In October 1999 the HSE published new data on the costs to the UK of workplace accidents and work related ill-health in 1995/96 which estimated that:

The costs to employers are estimated between 35 billion and 73 billion a year (between 4% and 8% of all gross company trading profits).

Work related accidents & Illnesses cost between 2.1% and 2.6% of the Gross Domestic Product each year equivalent to between 14.5 and 18.1 billion.

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1

8-36

Insurance C osts

C overing In ju ry, ill health , dam age

U nin sured C o sts Produc t and m aterial dam age. P lant & bu ild ing dam age T oo l & equip m ent d am age. Lega l costs Expenditure on em ergency supplies. C learing site Produc tion de lays O vertim e wo rking and tem porary labour Investiga tion tim e. Superv isors tim e d iverted C lerica l effo rt. F ines Loss o f expertise/experience

Figure 12: Insurance and accident costs 1.6.3 Legislation Organizations have a legal obligation to prevent accidents and ill-health. Health and Safety Legislation in the UK consists of a number of Acts that are supported by subordinate legislation in the form of Regulations. The principal act is the Health and Safety at Work Act. This Act sets in place a system based on self-regulation with the responsibility for accident control placed on those who create the risks in the first instance. It also allows for the progressive replacement of existing safety law so that the general duties set in the act could be backed by Regulations, setting goals and standards for specific hazards and industries. Any breach of this statutory duty can result in criminal proceedings.

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1.5.4 Accident trends Fatals The three most common causes of fatalities to employees

were falls from height, being struck by a moving vehicle, and being struck by a falling object. However, the causes varied from sector to sector. In construction, most deaths were caused by falls from height (46%). In manufacturing and the service sector, falls from height accounted for 20% and 16% of deaths respectively. Within the service sector, 40% of all deaths were caused by being struck by moving vehicles, up 33% the previous year.

Non Fatal Major Injuries The four most common causes of major injuries to all employees were slips, trips and falls, falls from a height, being struck by a moving or falling object, and being injured whilst handling, lifting or carrying. HSE figures mention that an estimated 591 major injuries were caused by violence at work, this is a reduction from the previous years number (680) but still represents 2 per cent of all major injuries experience by employees.

+3 day Injuries Lifting, handling or carrying, slips, trips or falls, and being struck by a moving or falling object were the three most likely ways in which employees were likely to sustain over three day injuries. These figures also pick up the number of injuries caused by violence in the workplace (4335) which is down on the previous year.

Ill-health The most prevalent forms of work related ill-health in the UK are: Musculoskeletal disorders an estimated 1.2 million people

were affected in 1995 (including back-problems & RSI) Stress an estimated 0.5 people were affected in 1995.

Both these conditions accounted for over three-quarters of people suffering from an illness caused by their work. A significant number of people were suffering from a lower respiratory illness, including asthma (an estimated 200,000) and ear conditions, including deafness (an estimated 170,000) which were caused by their work. 1.7 Summary

Accident causation is very complex and must be understood adequately in order to improve accident prevention. Since safety lacks a theoretical base, it cannot be regarded as being a science yet. This fact should not

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discourage us, as most of the scientific disciplinesmathematics, statistics and so onpassed through a similarly tentative phase at one time or the other. Accident causation study holds great promise for those who are interested in developing the pertinent theory. At present, theories of accident causation are conceptual in nature and, as such, are of limited use in preventing and controlling accidents. With such a diversity of theories, it will not be difficult to understand that there does not existed one single theory that is considered right or correct and is universally accepted. These theories are nonetheless necessary, but not sufficient, for developing a frame of reference for understanding accident occurrences.

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Chapter 2: Importance of Risk Management 2.1 Importance The absence of accidents does not necessarily mean there are no hazards. It also does not mean that there is no hazard. A risk management process must be adopted and repeated at regular intervals. We often find that hazards with devastating consequences are not addressed until an accident has occurred. A risk management process should adapted and repeated at regular interval to ensure that all hazards have been identified, the risks assessed and adequate measures to control those risks are in place. Initiation of a risk management program is clearly the responsibility of management whilst the employees role is one of support and assistance. 2.2 Principle of Risk Management A Hazard: Is defined as anything that may cause harm, injury, or ill health to a person, or economic loss of a property Risk: is the chance, high or low, that someone will be harmed by a hazard. Some countries impose that business having five or more persons has safety policy statement. The following is an example of statement Controlling danger at work is not different from tracking any other task: training personnel, being proactive (premising), recognizing the problem, knowing enough about it, deciding what to do, and putting the solution into place is a guarantees for minimizing risks.

2.3 Hazard Identifications It is the first step in the risk management process. Only people with a through knowledge of the area, process or machine under review should

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carry out a hazard identification survey. The person delegated the task of hazard identification should explore the many sources of information available for identifying hazards within the area of their inquiry. These may include any of the following: 2.3.1 Previous accident reports Review the history of the area review. Any accident or near misses should be carefully investigated. At this stage it is worth sorting all the accidents and near misses information into a number of categories. Typically these categories heading could be:

Location Machine Person Age of person Time of day Day of week Part of body Severity of injury Occupation

Identifying a trend of accidents in any of the above areas may assist the investigator identify the possible hazard. 2.3.2 Physical inspection of the workplace A physical examination of the workplace requires an inquiring mind, lateral thinking, and the ability to be remaining open minded. It is of little use to look at a particular area and, in a perfunctory manner, declare it to be hazard free. 2.3.2.1 Guidelines Employees and supervisors are responsible for day-to-day workplace inspections to identify and eliminate occupational hazards. Everyone must be vigilant for physical deficiencies in the workplace and for unsafe work practices. If workplace parties relegate their inspection responsibilities entirely to the local joint health and safety committee, then the internal responsibility system will be undermined and problems will not be resolved effectively.

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2.3.2.2 Types of safety inspections There are several types of workplace inspections essential for due diligence. Daily walkabouts or continuous inspections are performed by employees and supervisors to check for obvious hazards. These inspections must be conducted daily because hazards and unsafe conditions are continuously created (i.e. equipment is changed, work spaces are rearranged, parts become worn, new processes are introduced). Incidents resulting in injury often occur after something has been changed. Spot inspections and job observations are performed by supervisors to ensure safe work practices. Specialized inspections include pre-operational checks and critical parts inspections in equipment. Comprehensive planned inspections are performed monthly by departmental (local) safety committee members to audit the effectiveness of the aforementioned inspection efforts. Written inspection reports serve as valuable confirmation of due diligence, that the University is taking every precaution reasonable to protect employees and students. Inspection reports may be audited by the Ministry of Labor. 2.3.2.2 Safety committee inspections Workplace inspections by Joint Health and Safety Committee personnel are prescribed by the Occupational Health and Safety Act to help ensure that the internal responsibility system is alive and functioning to maintain safety as a priority. Committee inspections should identify safety concerns that have not been resolved by employees and supervisors. They provide an opportunity to commend employees and supervisors for successful safety efforts. Inspections also confirm that hazard controls are effective and operational. The Occupational Health and Safety Act requires that Committee inspections be conducted monthly. If this is not practical, then the workplace shall be inspected yearly with part of the workplace being inspected monthly according to a written schedule determined by the local safety committee. Inspections must be performed by worker members of the committee. In some areas, a worker member and a management member may inspect the workplace as a team. The area supervisor should be invited to participate in the inspection process. Hazards and unsafe work practices must be noted on the inspection form and prioritized according to severity of the hazard. Immediately dangerous to life and health

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(IDLH) hazards shall be isolated, corrected on the spot, or work must be stopped. Workplace inspections by safety committee members should identify unresolved health and safety issues or hazards that might cause injury or illness. Committee inspections are not intended to identify lists of fix-it items. Fix-it items must be reported daily by all employees as part of their routine workplace vigilance and due diligence. Workplace inspections should evolve to become an efficient audit of a departments internal responsibility system and its occupational health and safety management programs. After inspections are completed, the departmental safety committee shall review their inspection reports and the actions recommended to the Chair or Department Head. A summary of the inspection process and safety issues identified shall be included in the next minutes of the local safety committee. Confirmation of corrective actions is essential. It may be appropriate to re-inspect the area of concern at a pre-set date or to discuss the action plan for the safety issue identified. 2.3.2.4 Inspection checklists No checklist can be complete enough to evaluate a workplace for all hazards. They are useful tools for recording notes about physical or procedural deficiencies, but should not become the focus of the workplace inspection. The focus must be on outstanding or newly created hazards and unsafe work procedures. A sample inspection report form is appended. The Agricultural Safety Audit Program (ASAP) from the Workplace Safety and Insurance Board promotes a systematic approach for farm safety audits. The hazard identification checklists are useful tools for workplace inspections..

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Table 1: Inspection report BUILDING: ROOM DEPARTMENT INSPECTED BY DATE ACCOMPANIED BY TO BE COMPLETED DURING THE INSPECTION: FOLLOW-UP: Item No.

Hazard and Location (Include any Immediate Action Taken)

Hazard Rating

ASSIGNED TO: (Person to Correct)

Action Taken and Date

HAZARD PRIORITY RATING DISTRIBUTION 1. Immediately dangerous to life and health (e.g. stop work) 1. Supervisor 9 2. High (e.g. correct within a day) 2. Dept. Chair 9 3. Medium (e.g. correct within two weeks) 3. Local JHSC 9 4. Low (e.g. correct within a semester) 4. EHS 9

Notes

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2.3.3 Brainstorming

Most problems are not solved automatically by the first idea that comes to mind. To get to the best solution it is important to consider many possible solutions. One of the best ways to do this is called brainstorming. Brainstorming is the act of defining a problem or idea and coming up anything related to the topic - no matter how remote a suggestion may sound. All of these ideas are recorded and evaluated only after the brainstorming is completed.

2.3.3.1 Procedure

This is a process of conducting group meetings with people who are familiar with the operation of the area under review, recording all ideas a thoughts relating to possible hazards and then sorting the results into some of priority order.

1. In a small or large group select a leader and a recorder (they may be the same person).

2. Define the problem or idea to be brainstormed. Make sure everyone is clear on the topic being explored.

3. Set up the rules for the session. They should include:

Letting the leader have control. Allowing everyone to contribute. Ensuring that no one will insult, demean, or evaluate another

participant or his/her response. Stating that no answer is wrong. Recording each answer unless it is a repeat. Setting a time limit and stopping when that time is up.

4. Start the brainstorming. Have the leader select members of the group to share their answers. The recorder should write down all responses, if possible so everyone can see them. Make sure not to evaluate or criticize any answers until done brainstorming.

5. Once you have finished brainstorming, go through the results and begin evaluating the responses. Some initial qualities to look for when examining the responses include

Looking for any answers that are repeated or similar. Grouping like concepts together.

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Eliminating responses that definitely do not fit. Now that you have narrowed your list down some, discuss

the remaining responses as a group.

2.3.4 Knowledge of employees Employees should be encouraged to describe any hazards they are aware of. Inquiries of this nature should be conducted in an atmosphere of "no blame" where even if the employee is not doing things properly they are not criticized for it. The aim is to identify and document hazards at this stage.

An authorized employee representative will be given the opportunity to attend the opening and closing conferences, and to accompany the investigator and the employer during the walk-around inspection. The investigator may also consult with a reasonable number of employees concerning safety and health matters in the workplace. Employees are protected under the Act from discrimination by the employer for exercising their safety and health rights.

The investigator will also explain the requirements of the Employee Right-to-Know (RTK) Standard. Under RTK, employers must establish a written comprehensive Right-to-Know program that includes provisions for container labeling, material safety data sheets and employee training. The program must contain a list of the hazardous chemicals in each work area and the means the employer will use to inform employees of the hazards of both everyday and non-routine tasks.

2.3.5 Trade Journals Trade journals are often a source of information regarding hazards encountered by others in the industry. They can be a source of useful inquiry, as members of the same industry would expect to encounter similar hazards. Trade journals can offer statistical data about accidents happened in the risk assessment field. They can offer hazards as well as hazard areas associated with the new technology and fields of industry. Each industrial, social, engineering, medical, agricultural branch has its own trade journals. Consulting trade journal help assessor to consult new hazardous materials exists in the assessed industry. 2.3.5.1 International Journal of Applied Management and Technology

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The on-line, international, peer-reviewed journal IJAMT, sponsored by Walden University School of Management, is published biannually in May and November. It is available on the Internet to all interested parties for purposes of research and practical application. The journal welcomes original, unpublished manuscripts in the field of applied management and technology in all sectors of society from scholars, scholar-practitioners, and advanced graduate students. http://www.ijamt.org/ 2.3.5.2 Journal of Accident Investigation This biannual, interdisciplinary journal published by the National Transportation Safety Board provides for the public exchange of ideas and information developed through accident investigations at the NTSB in all modes of transportation. The intended audience is professionals in safety, accident investigations, engineering, and the behavioral sciences. http://www.ntsb.gov/publictn/2005/JRN0501.htm 2.3.5.3 Risk Analysis Risk Analysis, the journal of the Society for Risk Analysis, provides a focal point for new developments in risk analysis for scientists from a wide range of disciplines. The analysis of risks is being increasingly viewed as a field in itself, and the demand for a more orderly and formal treatment of risks is great. Risk Analysis is designed to meet these needs of organization, integration, and communication. The journal covers topics of great interest to regulators, researchers, and scientific administrators. It deals with health risks, engineering, mathematical, and theoretical aspects of risks, and social and psychological aspects of risk such as risk perception, acceptability, economics, and ethics. All scientific articles in Risk Analysis are fully peer reviewed. http://www.sra.org/journal.htm 2.3.5.4 Risk, Decision and Policy This unique publication is published three times per year by Cambridge University Press and includes both theoretical and applied papers on decision-making while under risk. The journal's coverage includes technical articles, comments, guest-edited symposia on current policy issues, forum pieces, commissioned surveys, book and software reviews, and news on conferences and related societies around the world. This publication will help decision and risk researchers in

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statistics, economics, psychology, medicine and public health, as well as policy-makers in both business and government. http://www.cup.org.

2.3.5.5 Risk: Health, Safety & Environment

As the official journal of the Risk Assessment & Policy Association, this refereed, interdisciplinary quarterly explores public and private efforts to manage science and technology for net reduction in the probability, severity, and aversive quality of health, safety, and environmental impacts of natural and artificial hazards. A cumulative index is provided, as well as an index of book reviews and essays. http://www.fplc.edu/risk/profrisk.htm 2.3.5.6 Risk Management: An International Journal This journal aims to generate ideas and promote good practice and to facilitate the exchange of information and expertise for those involved in the business of managing risk, across countries and across disciplines. Perpetuity Press in Leicester, United Kingdom, publishes the journal's four issues annually. Starting January 2002, free instant access to a leading risk, security, and crime prevention abstract database--Security and Risk Abstract Database--is included with every journal subscription. http://www.perpetuitypress.com/ (click on "Journals") 2.3.5.7 Environmental & Ecological Risks See Human and Ecological Risk Assessment Journal listed below.

2.3.5.8 Annals of Internal Medicine

The American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine publishes Annals of Internal Medicine, one of the most cited medical journals in the world, on the second and fourth Tuesdays every month. ACP-ASIM membership or a nonmember subscription is required to view the journal's research articles on line, but non-technical summaries of the articles are available to the public. http://www.acponline.org/journals/annals/ 2.3.5.8 Health, Risk & Society

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Social scientists, practitioners, and policy makers who have an interest in risk issues relating to health are among the readership of this international scholarly journal devoted to a theoretical and empirical understanding of the social processes that influence the ways in which risks are taken, communicated, assessed, and managed in relationship to health and health care. Published quarterly by Taylor and Francis Group Ltd., the journal welcomes contributions from a variety of social sciences disciplines that examine the issues of risk within health and health care, including economics, sociology, psychology, and management. Submission of articles that explore the ways in which risk was handled at a variety of levels--that is, in the community, within various organizations, and at national and supranational levels--is encouraged. http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/13698575.asp

2.3.5.9 Human and Ecological Risk Assessment Journal Human and Ecological Risk Assessment is the first journal devoted to providing a framework for professionals researching and assessing developments in both human and ecological risk assessment. The journal was created to enhance the communication and cooperation of professionals working on human risk assessment with those in the ecological risk assessment domain. Given the rapid development in these respective disciplines and their unique potential inter-relatedness, efforts to directly enhance technical information transfer will markedly benefit each field. The journal is a bimonthly, international, peer-reviewed publication focusing on scientific and technical information and critical analysis. http://www.crcpress.com/cgi-in/scart.cgi?store=wrisk&catalog=10807039

2.3.5.10 Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA)

This international peer-reviewed general medical journal, which began publication in 1883, promotes the science and art of medicine and the betterment of the public health. A search of the JAMA web will produce many references to health-related risk, such as the topical October 27, 1999, issue on obesity research that includes information on related disease risks. http://jama.ama-assn.org/

2.3.5.11 Journal of the National Cancer Institute

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The Journal of the National Cancer Institute, which includes news articles, abstracts of reports, calendar of events, and job openings, is published twice a month and is available on line by subscription. The journal's table of contents and abstracts are available without charge. http://jnci.oupjournals.org/

2.3.5.12 Toxicological Sciences

One of the Society of Toxicology's official journals and fully owned and financed by the society, Toxicological Sciences publishes research articles 12 times a year that are broadly relevant to assessing the potential adverse health effects resulting from exposure of human or animals to chemicals, drugs, natural products, or synthetic materials. Manuscripts are published in all areas of toxicology, both descriptive and mechanistic, as well as interpretive or theoretical investigations that elucidate the risk assessment implications of exposure to toxic agents alone or in combination. Beginning January 1, 1999, Toxicological Sciences became available on line free to the public and is published by Oxford University Press. http://toxsci.oupjournals.org/ 2.3.6 OSHA (Occupational Safety & Hazard Administration) publication and safety alerts More than three decades ago, the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 created the Occupational Safety and Health Administration to help employers and employees reduce injuries, illnesses, and deaths on the job in America. Since then, workplace fatalities have been cut by 62 percent and occupational injury and illness rates have declined 40 percent. At the same time, U.S. employment has doubled and now includes nearly 115 million workers at 7 million sites. OSHA provides national leadership in occupational safety and health. The agency seeks to find and share the most effective ways to get resultsto save lives and prevent injuries and illnesses. The message is simpleSafety and health add value: to your business, to your workplace, and to your life. For business, protecting workers safety and health is the right thing to do. It saves money and adds value to the organization. When workers stay whole and healthy, businesses experience lower workers compensation insurance costs, reduced medical expenditures,

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decreased payout for return-to-work programs, fewer faulty products, and lower costs for job accommodations for injured workers. There are also indirect benefits such as increased productivity, lower costs for training replacement workers, and decreased costs for overtime. Every workplace is a community. Safety and health add value to workplaces by increasing morale, improving productivity, and reducing turnover. The best companies build a reputation that is synonymous not only with an excellent product, but also an outstanding work environment where safety and health is a core value. Every employee benefits when safety and health is a priority at the workplace. Every worker wants to make a contribution through his or her job, yet the primary purpose of work is to make a living. Safety and health add value to the lives of workers by enabling them to maintain their incomes and provide for their families. Getting hurt or sick is not just physically painful. On-the-job injuries and illnesses can significantly reduce income, increase stress, and hinder a full family life. Establishing a safe and healthful working environment requires every employer and every worker to make safety and health a top priority. The entire workforcefrom the CEO to the most recent hiremust recognize the value of safety and health and acknowledge that this is central to the mission and key to the corporate vision and identity. OSHA provides leadership and encouragement to employers and workers to help them recognize and realize the value of safety and health on the job. The agencys ultimate goal will always be to reduce injuries, illnesses, and deaths to zero. 2.3.6.1 OSHA's history and purpose OSHA stands for the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, an agency of the U.S. Department of Labor. The U.S. Congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (the OSH Act)1 to assure so far as possible every working man and woman in the nation safe and healthful working conditions and to preserve our human resources. The legislation, signed into law by President Richard M. Nixon on Dec. 29, 1970, established OSHA and its sole responsibility to provide worker safety and health protection. Nearly everyone in America works or has someone in the immediate family who does. Whether you are an employer, employee, or have a

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family member who works, you need to know about OSHA. The more you know about OSHA, the better you can protect yourself, your coworkers, or your employees and contribute to safe and healthful working conditions for all Americans. 2.3.6.2 What OSHA does? OSHA uses three basic strategies, authorized by the Occupational Safety and Health Act, to help employers and employees reduce injuries, illnesses, and deaths on the job:

Strong, fair, and effective enforcement; Outreach, education, and compliance assistance; and Partnerships and other cooperative programs.

Based on these strategies, OSHA conducts a wide range of programs and activities to promote workplace safety and health. The agency:

Encourages employers and employees to reduce workplace hazards and to implement new safety and health management systems or improve existing programs;

Develops mandatory job safety and health standards and enforces them through worksite inspections, employer assistance, and, sometimes, by imposing citations, penalties, or both;

Promotes safe and healthful work environments through cooperative programs, partnerships, and alliances;

Establishes responsibilities and rights for employers and employees to achieve better safety and health conditions;

Supports the development of innovative ways of dealing with workplace hazards;

Maintains a reporting and recordkeeping system to monitor job-related injuries and illnesses;

Establishes training programs to increase the competence of occupational safety and health personnel;

Provides technical and compliance assistance and training and education to help employers reduce worker accidents and injuries;

Works in partnership with states that operate their own occupational safety and health programs; and

Supports the Consultation Service. www.osha.gov 2.3.6.3 Who is not covered? The OSH Act does not cover:

The self-employed;

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Immediate members of farming families on farms that do not employ outside workers;

Employees whose working conditions are regulated by other federal agencies under other federal statutes. These include mine workers, certain truckers and transportation workers, and atomic energy workers;

Public employees in state and local governments; some states have their own occupational safety and health plans that cover these workers.

For more information visit http://www.osha.gov or http://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha2056.pdf#search='about%20OSHA' 2.3.7 Manufacturers instruction books Manufactures instruction books often provide advice and warnings regarding safety and health issues. It is important to ensure all instructions are understood and more importantly, followed by all employees. Manufacturers information, including material safety data sheets, should always be reviewed to ensure the products in use are the safest available and do not have hidden hazards. Ask " what if ..? It is important to try to anticipate how human behavior, plant, and system failure could combine to create a hazardous situation. Constantly ask yourself. What if .? 2.3.8 Sample inspection worksheet Always note details of the hazard onto a worksheet. Development of a physical hazard list is very important as this forms the basis for the next step of the process. There are no standard formats used to record the data and so the following example worksheet, Tables 2 & 3 are only for reference and may need modification to suit nature of individual projects.

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Table 2: Sample inspection worksheet

Company: Printing Site / location Inspection work sheet No.1 Inspected by: Date: Plant Hazard and source Comments Large paper guillotine

Crush from paper holding bar

Operator and casual passes-by need protection

Amputation from blade due to: Access to blade from

rear Safety latch failure Electronic beam not

failing to safety

Industrial lift truck

Could trip over or lose load if overloaded

Usually received pallet loads within capacity, but heavier loads than the trucks capacity arrive occasionally

If raised above mast height load could fall on operator

Fitted with overhead protection

Person could be struck and crushed by lift truck

Truck regularly operates near operations on binding line

Rear turning wheels could run over and crush a persons foot

Two people have previously had their feet run over while talking to driver

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Table 3: Sample inspection of pizza shop

Company: Pizza shop Site / location Inspection work sheet No.1 Inspected by: Date: Plant Hazard and source Comments Pizza oven Possible bums when

taking food out. Has happened frequently. Should use gloves.

Electric knife Possible electrocution form cutting cord

Could connect through remote controlled device (RCD)

Electric meat slicker Possible electrocution Use RCD: test regularly Cutting hazard Use steel mesh cutting

glove& safe work practices.

2.4 Risk Examples in Pictures

Vision is the most effective sense for people to memorize and remember things. Therefore, here below are some risk pictures that enables the student to be familiar with daily and operational risk.

Figure 13: Slipping or tripping at work

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Figure 14: Getting into contact with hazardous material (asbestos, fumes, etc. )

Figure 15: Performing work at height

Figure 16: Handling, transporting or supporting loads while suffering from sprains, strains, or pains

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Figure 17: