emission charateristics of gasoline engine at high load - copy

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KOFORIDUA POLYTECHNIC

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING

EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF GASOLINE ENGINE AT

HIGH LOAD

RAPHAEL CODJOE

This project is presented to the Department of Automotive Engineering – Koforidua Polytechnic,

Koforidua Ghana, in partial fulfillment for the award of an HND, July 2011. No. 2008/2011



KOFORIDUA POLYTECHNIC

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING

EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF GASOLINE ENGINE AT

HIGH LOAD

RAPHAEL CODJOE 04/2008/857D



DECLARATION

I do hereby declare that, the work presented is my own work and no such work has been for

the Higher National Diploma presented to the polytechnic. Works by other authors which

served as sources of information have been duly acknowledged by references to the authors.I am therefore liable for error(s), mistake(s), omission(s) and whatsoever that may arise.

Signature………………………. Date………………………………

RAPHAEL CODJOE

(Researcher)

CERTIFICATION

The undersigned certifies that, the supervisor has read and recommended to the School of

Engineering for the acceptance of this research work entitled “Emission Characteristics of

Gasoline Engine at High Load.”

Signature……………………. Date……………………….

Mr. Ebenezer Tetteh Larnor

(Supervisor)



ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My sincerest thanks goes to the Almighty God for His Divine protection and guidance

throughout my educational life, on the humanitarian I also say a bigger thank to the best

parents in the whole world, Florence Codjoe (Mrs.) and Joseph Codjoe(Pastor), I say God

richly bless them for their continuous support throughout my educational life, thirdly my

profound gratitude goes to my supervisor Mr. Ebenezer Tetteh Larnor, a lecturer at the School

of Engineering Koforidua Polytechnic for his constructive corrections and suggestions

throughout this research work

I am also indebted to Mr. Godwin Kafui Ayeto, also a lecturer at the School of Engineering

Koforidua Polytechnic for his continuous suggestions throughout this research work

Finally my thanks and gratitude goes to all my friends and loved once and to everyone who

supported in any way for this research to being a success especially Miss Lily Opoku for her

continuous prayer, support and encouragement throughout this research work, I say God richly

bless richly them and meet them at the point of their needs.



ABSTRACT

Emission characteristics of gasoline engine at high load was studied from a Ford Focus, spark

ignition vehicle fueled with gasoline. In present days emissions with respect to exhaust of

automotive resulting in global warming is a major concern to the entire world and also

detrimental to health, experiment has being made to know the level of variation of exhaust gas

emissions (Carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide) in gasoline engines under each

engine operation condition (low load and high load) by maintaining engine load, increasing

and engine load.

The main aim of the study is to experiment and analyze emission characteristics of gasoline

engine at with respect to engine operation condition.

The research consisted of two phases, the first was measuring the emission level of the engine

at normal engine load, that is, measurements were taken while engine was running without

any component such as Climate Control Systems which directly requires its energy source

from the engine turned on and the second phase was measuring the emission levels at high

loads, with this, components that requires its energy source directly from the engine were

turned on and the road wheels were allowed to roll on the chassis dynamometer before

measurements were taken

The method used in carrying out this research work was experimental method. The primary

sources of information include the library, internet search and experimental work. The

research has revealed that emissions of gasoline engine changes with respect to the engine

load but can be controlled with the help of the emission controlled by the engine management

system however if any of the engine management sensors fails emission levels go so high

beyond acceptable level. The researcher amongst others recommends that it is imperative



more research done on such topics from time to time, as technology is dynamic and changing

every now and then.



Key words

Emission

Characteristics

List of Acronyms

HC - Hydro Carbon

C0 - Carbon monoxide

C02 &H20) - Carbon dioxide water vapors

N0X - Nitrogen oxide



Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 11

1.0. BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................. 11

1.1. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ..................................................................................... 13

1.2. AIM OF THE STUDY .................................................................................................... 14

1.4. THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY ....................................................................................... 14

1.5. LIMITATIONS............................................................................................................... 15

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................ 16

2.1. VEHICLE EMISSION STANDARDS ............................................................................ 17

2.2 AIR AND NOISE POLLUTION ....................................................................................... 22

2.2.1 AIR POLLUTION ......................................................................................................... 22

2.2.2 NOISE POLLUTION ................................................................................................. 24

2.2.3 IDLING ...................................................................................................................... 25

2.4 ENVIRONMENT.......................................................................................................... 26

2.5 VEHICLE EMISSION COMPOSITION ........................................................................ 27

2.5.1 HYDRO CARBONS.................................................................................................... 28

2.5.2 CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)...................................................................................... 28

2.5.3 CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2........................................................................................... 28

2.5.4 NITROGEN OXIDES (NOx) ....................................................................................... 28

2.5.5 PARTICULATES........................................................................................................ 28

2.5.6 SULPHUR OXIDES (SOx) .......................................................................................... 29

2.6 TRANSPORTATION AND POLLUTANTS ................................................................. 29

2.7 MANUFACTUERE’S TECHNOLOGY TO CONTROL EMISSION............................. 31

2.7.1 CATALYTIC CONVERSION..................................................................................... 31

2.7.2 ENGINE MANAGEMENT ......................................................................................... 33

2.7.3 EVAPORATIVE EMISSIONS .................................................................................... 33

3 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................. 35

3.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 35

3.1.1 EQUIPMENTS USED IN THE EXPERIMENT ......................................................... 35

3.1.2 DYNAMOMETER ...................................................................................................... 35

3.1.3 EXHAUST GAS ANALYSER ..................................................................................... 37

3.1.4 FORD FOCUS............................................................................................................. 38



3.2 SPECIFICATION OF FORD FOCUS ............................................................................ 39

3.3.0. METHOD OF THE DATA COLLECTION ................................................................ 39

3.3.1. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDUE ................................................................................. 39

3.3 SAMPLE SIZE ............................................................................................................... 41

4 RESULTS, ANANLYSIS AND DISCUSION...................................................................... 42

4.1 RESULTS DATA ANALYSIS ........................................................................................ 42

4.2 LOW LOAD EMISSION ANALYSIS............................................................................. 43

4.3 CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH ENGINE IS SAID TO BE RUNING ON HIGH LOAD

44

4.4 ENGINE OPERATING IN HIGH LOAD CONDITION ................................................ 44

5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.................................................................... 47

5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ................................................................................................... 47

5.2 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................................. 47

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................................... 48

6.0. REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 49

6.1. BOOKS ........................................................................................................................... 49

6.2. WEB PAGES .................................................................................................................. 49



LIST FIGURES

Figure 1. A picture of a vehicle polluting the environment (Technorati .com) ..................................... 12

Figure 2. Shows a vehicle emitting exhaust gases ................................................................................. 13Figure 3. Dynostar Dynamometer......................................................................................................... 36

Figure 4. (TECALEMIT GARAGE) TG400 EXAUST GAS ANALYSER ......................................... 37

Figure 5. FORD FOCUS 2001............................................................................................................... 38

Figure 6. Shows how the vehicle was fixed on the dynamometer ......................................................... 40

Figure 7. Shows connections to spark plug cable and engine oil temperature gauge hole .................... 41

Figure 8. shows reading of gases at low engine load ............................................................................. 42

Figure 9. shows reading of gases at low engine load ............................................................................. 43

Figure 10. shows low load and high load differences ............................................................................ 45

Figure 11. show auto data requirement for exhaust gases readings ....................................................... 46

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Shows Indian Emission Standards for Light-Duty Diesel Engines, g/kWh ................................ 20

Table 2. Shows Indian Emission Standards for Gasoline Vehicles (GVW ≤ 3,500 kg), g/km (www.En.

Wikipedia.org) ........................................................................................................................................ 21



1. INTRODUCTION

1.0. BACKGROUND

Fossil fuels supply nearly 80% of world energy demand. Burning of fossil fuel always has

associated with it emissions in the forms of nitrogen oxides (NOX), sulfuroxides (SOX),

carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (UHC). These emissions have environmental

impacts that are both local and global. Moreover, in recent years, air quality has become a

severe problem in many countries, and the interest to replace fossil fuels with renewable and

sustainable energy sources has increased for reducing CO2 emissions.

Global warming and climatic change caused by environmental pollution has been a very big

problem confronting the whole world. Most people have attributed this to excessive Pollution

from industrial machines, industrial plants, motor vehicles etc. This climate change has caused

serious disasters like volcanic eruption, floods in some parts of world, depletion of the ozone

layer which causes a great effect to the skin. In December 2009, the world bodies met with

one mind to discuss issues concerning climatic change. It has been said that motor vehicular

emissions contributes the highest pollution in the world. Vehicular emission pollution in the

world is an ongoing problem particularly in our urbanized cities. Vehicles are estimated to

contribute up to 70% of total urban air pollution (NSW EPA, 1999). Emissions from vehicles

therefore have significant effects on the quality of life for urban residents, particularly those

susceptible to air pollution. High levels of air pollutants have been shown to result in a wide

range of adverse health and visual impacts on society. Increasing levels of pollution can have

significant environmental and economic consequences. Health effects associated with air

pollution include respiratory effects, ranging in severity from coughs, chest congestion,

asthma, to chronic illness and possible premature death in susceptible people. Other effects of



air pollutants include damage to vegetation, buildings and materials, and reduction in visibility

(Grant et. al.1993). According to Karl-Heinz & Maria Klingebiel, 2007 Apart from South

Africa, there is no country in Africa that have vehicle emission standard. In the figure 1, 2, 3

and you can see the smoke released by the vehicles, and this would result in reduction in

visibility and can be offensive to motorists and pedestrians because of the odor and physical

irritation of air ways. Reducing the contribution of motor vehicle emissions to air pollution is

expected to have a positive impact on human health and the environment (Hughes, et al 1990).

Figure 1. A picture of a vehicle polluting the environment (Technorati .com)



Figure 2. Shows a vehicle emitting exhaust gases

1.1. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To experiment and analyze gasoline engine emissions at high load and low load.

2. To draw attention to the effect engine operation and its effect on emission characteristics

3. To encourage authorities to enforce legislation on vehicle emission in the country by given

concern authorities copies of the research for free



1.2. AIM OF THE STUDY

The main aim of the research is to experiment and analyze emission characteristics of gasoline

engine at with respect to engine load (high load and low load)

1.3. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

• The findings of this research will go a long way to assist the (EPA) Environmental

Protection Agency to call on the government to pass legislation on emission.

• The research will help to create awareness on effect of engine load on emission

characteristics

• It will create awareness on the health hazards imposed on human beings and the

environment by emissions.

• It will encourage the Ministry of Transport and the customs excise and preventive services

to enforce the laws on the over age vehicles

• It will serve as a study material for students

1.4. THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The research was limited to Ford Focus 2001 hatch back vehicle, fitted with 1.6 liter gasoline

engine.



1.5. LIMITATIONS

The limitation of this research work was the inability of the exhaust gas Analyser to measure

Nitrogen Oxide gas produced by gasoline engine because it was a four gas Analyser and

limited to Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, Carbon monoxide and Hydrocarbons. The defect of the

Analyser Oxygen sensor made it impossible for the Analyser to measure Oxygen values as

well. But the most important and dangerous gasoline engine emissions were measured

accordingly making the research a success.



2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter the analytic framework for the project is presented, this section of the

research work gives an overview and addresses what engineers and order researchers

have written about the vehicle emission and its improvement in relation to engine

operation (high load, low load and over load). Though much literature exists on the

subject areas relating to the topic such as definitions, manufactures technology to

reduce emission, emission standards of other countries, key concept and component on

the topic and related improvement and safety in its usage have been included.

Most vehicles are constructed to run with internal combustion engines and the source of

power to the engine is generated by burning petrol or diesel, this type of fuel generates

a very high rate of pollutant emitted into the environment. There many factors dictating

the exact air: fuel ratio used in an engine, the rate of pollutant generated and emitted by

an engine mostly depends on the operating condition of the engine, these conditions are

light load, high load and cold starting or cold running. Vehicular emissions continue to

attract the attention of public health specialists, and environmentalists because of their

adverse effects on global climate and its effect on human health and other living

things.

In 1960, the motor vehicle pollution control Board was established with a mandate to certify

devices proposed to be fitted on cars for sale. By 1967 the state of California created the

California Air Resources Board, and in 1970, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency was

formed. Both agencies now create and enforce emission regulations for automobiles, as well

as for many other sources. (Tom Denton, 2006).



2.1. VEHICLE EMISSION STANDARDS

Emissions standards are requirements that set specific limits to the amount of pollutants that

can be released into the environment. (ANON). Many emissions standards focus on regulating

pollutants released by automobiles (motor cars) and other powered vehicles.

Most of the develop countries have established standards to control emissions from vehicles.

The primary emission legislation includes:

-CARB legislation (California Air Resource Board)

- European Union (EU) emission standards

- Indian Legislation

-EU legislation (European Union) and the corresponding ECE regulations (UN Economic

Commission for Europe) and Japanese legislation

2.1.1 CARB LEGISLATION (California Air Resources Board)

In the United States, emissions standards are managed by the Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA). The state of California has special dispensation to promulgate more stringent

vehicle emissions standards, and other states may choose to follow either the national or

California standards. California's emissions standards are set by the California Air Resources

Board, known locally by its acronym "CARB". Given that California's automotive market is one

of the largest in the world, CARB wields enormous influence over the emissions requirements

that major automakers must meet if they wish to sell into that market. In addition, several other

U.S. states also choose to follow the CARB standards, so their rulemaking has broader

implications within the U.S. (www.auto.howstuff works.com/3/10/2010/8:05am). CARB lists

16 other states adopting CARB rules as of mid-2009. CARB's policies have also influenced EU

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Air_Resources_Board









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States



emissions standards. Federal (National) "Tier 1" regulations went into effect starting in 1994,

and "Tier 2" standards are being phased in from 2004 to 2009. Automobiles and light trucks

(SUVs, pickup trucks, and minivans) are treated differently under certain standards. California is

attempting to regulate greenhouse gas emissions from automobiles, but faces a court challenge

from the federal government. The states are also attempting to compel the federal EPA to

regulate greenhouse gas emissions, which as of 2007 it has declined to do. On May 19, 2009

news reports indicate that the Federal EPA will largely adopt California's standards on

greenhouse gas emissions. California and several other western states have passed bills requiring

performance-based regulation of greenhouse gases from electricity generation.

(www.En.Wikipedia.org)

2.1.2 EUROPEAN UNION (EU) EMISSION STANDARDS

The European Union has its own set of emissions standards that all new vehicles must meet.

Currently, standards are set for all road vehicles, trains, barges and 'nonroad mobile machinery'

(such as tractors). No standards apply to seagoing ships or airplanes. The emissions standards

change based on the test cycle used: ECE R49 (old) and ESC (European Steady Cycle, since

2000). Currently there are no standards for CO2 emissions. The European Parliament has

suggested introducing mandatory CO2 emission standards to replace current voluntary

commitments by the auto manufacturers. In late 2005, the European Commission started

working on a proposal for a new law to limit CO2 emissions from cars. The European

Commission has received support of the European Parliament for its proposal to promote a

broad market introduction of clean and energy efficient vehicles through public procurement.

The EU is to introduce Euro 4 effective January 1, 2008, Euro 5 effective January 1, 2010 and

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_truck

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SUV

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pickup_truck


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minivan


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas


http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-emissions19-2009may19,0,5567325.story

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESC

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Steady_Cycle


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Parliament




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESC

http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-emissions19-2009may19,0,5567325.story





http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SUV

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_truck



Euro 6 ef fective January 1, 2014. These dates have been postponed for two years to give oil

refineries the opportunity to modernize their plants. (www.En.Wikipedia.org)

2.1.3 INDIAN LEGISLATION

The first Indian emission regulations were idle emission limits which became effective in 1989.

These idle emission regulations were soon replaced by mass emission limits for both petrol

(1991) and diesel (1992) vehicles, which were gradually tightened during the 1990s. Since the

year 2000, India started adopting European emission and fuel regulations for four-wheeled light-

duty and for heavy-dc. Indian own emission regulations still apply to two- and three-wheeled

vehicles. Current requirement is that all transport vehicles carry a fitness certificate that is

renewed each year after the first two years of new vehicle registration. On October 6, 2003, the

National Auto Fuel Policy has been announced, which envisages a phased program for

introducing Euro 2 - 4 emission and fuel regulations by 2010. The implementation schedule of

EU emission standards in India is summarized in Table 2.

http://www.en.wikipedia.org/

http://www.en.wikipedia.org/



Year Reference CO HC NOx PM

1992 - 14.0 3.5 18.0 -

1996 - 11.20 2.40 14.4 -

2000 Euro I 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36*

2005† Euro II 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15

* 0.612 for engines below 85 kW

Table 1. Shows Indian Emission Standards for Light-Duty Diesel Engines, g/kWh



Year Reference CO HC HC+NOx

1991 - 14.3-27.1 2.0-2.9 -

1996 - 8.68-12.4 - 3.00-4.36

1998* - 4.34-6.20 - 1.50-2.18

2000 Euro 1 2.72-6.90 - 0.97-1.70

2005† Euro 2 2.2-5.0 - 0.5-0.7

* for catalytic converter fitted vehicles

Table 2. Shows Indian Emission Standards for Gasoline Vehicles (GVW ≤ 3,500 kg), g/km (www.En. Wikipedia.org)



2.2 AIR AND NOISE POLLUTION

2.2.1 AIR POLLUTION

Internal combustion engines such as reciprocating internal combustion engines produce air

pollution emissions, due to incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuel. The main derivatives

of the process are carbon dioxide CO2, water and some soot also called particulate matter

(PM). The effects of inhaling particulate matter have been studied in humans and animals and

include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, and premature death. There are however

some additional products of the combustion process that includes nitrogen oxides and sulfur

and some uncombusted hydrocarbons, depending on the operating conditions and the fuel-air

ratio. Not all of the fuel will be completely consumed by the combustion process; a small

amount of fuel will be present after combustion, some of which can react to form oxygenates,

such as formaldehyde or acetaldehyde, or hydrocarbons not initially present in the fuel

mixture. The primary causes of this is the need to operate near the stoichiometric ratio for

gasoline engines in order to achieve combustion and the resulting "quench" of the flame by the

relatively cool cylinder walls, otherwise the fuel would burn more completely in excess air.

When running at lower speeds, quenching is commonly observed in diesel (compression

ignition) engines that run on natural gas. It reduces the efficiency and increases knocking,

sometimes causing the engine to stall. Increasing the amount of air in the engine reduces the

amount of the first two pollutants, but tends to encourage the oxygen and nitrogen in the air to

combine to produce nitrogen oxides (NO x) that has been demonstrated to be hazardous to both

plant and animal health. Further chemicals released are benzene and 1,3-butadiene that are

also particularly harmful; and not all of the fuel burns up completely, so carbon monoxide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soot

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulate_matter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_oxide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehyde

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetaldehyde

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoichiometric


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzene

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,3-butadiene

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxide


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,3-butadiene

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzene


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoichiometric

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetaldehyde

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehyde

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulate_matter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soot


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon



(CO) is also produced.

Carbon fuels contain sulfur and impurities that eventually lead to producing sulfur monoxides

(SO) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) in the exhaust which promotes acid rain. One final element in

exhaust pollution is ozone (O3). This is not emitted directly but made in the air by the action of

sunlight on other pollutants to form "ground level ozone", which, unlike the "ozone layer" in

the high atmosphere, is regarded as a bad thing if the levels are too high. Ozone is broken

down by nitrogen oxides, so one tends to be lower where the other is higher.

(www.En.Wikipedia.org)

Ideally hydrocarbon failures mean unburned gasoline is passing through the engine and

entering the exhaust. The three most common causes include ignition misfire, lean misfire and

low compression (typically a burned exhaust valve). Ignition misfire can be caused by worn or

fouled spark plugs, bad plug wires or a weak coil. Lean misfire results where there is too much

air and not enough fuel, so check for vacuum leaks, dirty injectors or a fuel delivery problem.

In addition to these, hydrocarbon failures can also be caused by oil burning due to worn valve

guides, valve guide seals and/or rings. It is also stated in the book of Advance automotive fault

diagnostics written by Ton Denton (pg. 139) that;

High CO and high HC implies; Rich mixture

Blocked air filter

Damaged catalytic converter

Engine management system fault




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_monoxide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_monoxide



Low CO and high HC implies; Misfire

Fouled plug(s)

Weak mixture

Low CO and low or normal HC implies; Fouled injector

Exhaust leak

For the pollutants described above (nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, and

ozone), there are accepted levels that are set by legislation to which no harmful effects are

observed even in sensitive population groups. For the other three: benzene, 1,3-butadiene, and

particulates, there is no way of proving they are safe at any level so the experts set standards

where the risk to health is, "exceedingly small".(www.En.Wikipedia.org/10/10/2010/6:00pm )

2.2.2 NOISE POLLUTION

Significant contributions to noise pollution are made by internal combustion engines.

Automobile and truck traffic operating on highways and street systems produce noise, as do

aircraft flights due to jet noise, particularly supersonic-capable aircraft. Rocket engines create

the most intense noise.

http://www.en.wikipedia.org/10/10/2010/6:00pm



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_pollution

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_pollution




2.2.3 IDLING

Internal combustion engines continue to consume fuel and emit pollutants when idling so it is

desirable to keep periods of idling to a minimum. Many bus companies now instruct drivers to

switch off the engine when the bus is waiting at a terminus. In England, the Road Traffic

Regulations 2002 has introduced the concept of a "stationary idling offence". This means that

a driver can be subject to a fixed-penalty fine if he/she leaves a vehicle engine idling while

stationary. So far, only a few local authorities have implemented the regulations, one of them

being Oxford City Council. (www.En.Wikipedia.org)

2.3 HEALTH EFFECTS OF EXHAUST GAS EMISSION

Driving a car is the most air polluting act an average citizen commits. Air pollution is not a

good idea for a variety of reasons, large and small. The right ideas for remediation of

environmental degradations involve unselfish and compassionate behavior, a scarce

commodity. The right ideas involve long-term planning, conservation and a deep commitment

to preserving the natural world. Without a healthy natural environment, there will be few or no

healthy humans. To understand air pollution you can consider a simple schematic that divides

a big problem into components. (Garshick et al.1994)

1. Local effects -e.g. poisoning humans breathing with bad air.

2. Regional effects - fallout from airborne pathogens - infections, particles, chemicals.

3. Global effects - changing interactions between the atmosphere and sun, weather effects,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford



effects on plants and oceans.

Developments in the media made "go green" the slogan for action to limit the adverse effects

of air pollution. Green refers to the colour of chlorophyll in plants. Chlorophyll is the basis of

photosynthesis that allows plants to turn the sun's energy into life energy. Human action

destroys plants and replaces healthy ecosystems with concrete and asphalt. Another slogan

that emerged was "save planet earth." Humans will not save the planet. The task for humans is

to stop destroying the environments that sustain us. If we fail, the planet will do just fine

without us. The deepest problem for humans is that we cannot predict the future with any

accuracy. Even the best informed scientist with the most recent data cannot know what is

going to happen next.

When we talk about prudence, we refer to methods of minimizing risk and preparing to deal

with events beyond our control which can injure or kill us. Preparation for natural

catastrophes, accidents and illness consumes a large chunk of our resources. Smart humans

notice adverse changes and take action to minimize adverse consequences. But not all human

are smart or prudent. (Boffetta et al.1994)

2.4 ENVIRONMENT

Pollution has been found to be present widely in the environment. There are a number of

effects of this:

Bio magnification describes situations where toxins (such as heavy metals) may pass

through trophic levels, becoming exponentially more concentrated in the process.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_%28biophysical%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomagnification

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metals

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_level

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_level

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metals

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomagnification

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_%28biophysical%29



Carbon dioxide emissions cause ocean acidification, the ongoing decrease in the pH of

the Earth's oceans as CO2 becomes dissolved.

The emission of greenhouse gases leads to global warming which affects ecosystems

in many ways.

Nitrogen oxides are removed from the air by rain and fertilise land which can change

the species composition of ecosystems.

Smog and haze can reduce the amount of sunlight received by plants to carry out

photosynthesis and leads to the production of tropospheric ozone which damages

plants.

Soil can become infertile and unsuitable for plants. This will affect other organisms in

the food web.

Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can cause acid rain which lowers the pH value of

soil.

2.5 VEHICLE EMISSION COMPOSITION

Vehicle emission is the product of burnt fuel and air which is release to the atmosphere

through the exhaust tail pipe after power stroke of the engine. The gas comprises the

following:

Hydro Carbon HC

Carbon monoxide C0

Carbon dioxide water vapors (C02 &H20)

Nitrogen oxide N0X


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertiliser

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smog

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospheric_ozone

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_web

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulphur_dioxide



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulphur_dioxide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_web

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospheric_ozone

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smog

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertiliser


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification




2.5.1 HYDRO CARBONS

This class is made up of unburned or partially burned fuel, and is a major contributor to urban

smog, as well as being toxic. They can cause liver damage and even cancer.

2.5.2 CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)

A product of incomplete combustion, carbon monoxide colourless, odourless and tasteless gas

which reduces the blood's ability to carry oxygen and therefore result in poisoning Inhaling

air concentration of carbon monoxide can result in death within 30minute,and also dangerous

to people with heart disease (Karl-Heinz & Maria Klingebiel, 2007).

2.5.3 CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2

CO2 is not a pollutant per se, but is a greenhouse gas and so plays a role in global warming.

The only way to reduce CO2 emission is to burn less fuel. (Karl-Heinz & Maria Klingebiel,

2007).

2.5.4 NITROGEN OXIDES (NOx)

These are generated when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen at the high temperature and

pressure inside the engine. NOx is a reddish brown and have an acid and pungent smell. The

gas damages the respiratory system when in hailed. When combined with water vapour, nitric

acid can be formed which is very damaging to the windpipe and lung they are also

contributing factor to acid rain. (Tom Denton, 2006).

2.5.5 PARTICULATES

Soot or smoke made up of particles in the micrometer size range: Particulate matter causes

respiratory health effects in humans and animals.



2.5.6 SULPHUR OXIDES (SOx)

These are emitted from motor vehicles burning fuel containing a high concentration of

sulphur. Thus sulphur oxides irritate, primarily, the upper respiratory tract. They rarely, if

ever, enter the distal portions of the lungs and the alveolar system.

2.6 TRANSPORTATION AND POLLUTANTS

Transportation is one of the major contributors to man-made polluting emissions. Generally,

emission sources are categorized by four main sources: transportation (highway vehicles),

stationary fuel combustion (electrical utilities), industrial processes (chemical refining) and

solid waste disposal [Horowitz 1982]. According to current estimates, transportation

sources are responsible for about 45 percent of nationwide emissions of the EPA defined

pollutants [NRC 1995]. Highway vehicles, which contribute more than one-third of the

total nationwide emissions of the six criteria pollutants, are the largest source of

transportation-related emissions [Nizich et al. 1994]. Motor vehicles are the source of more

than 75 percent of the national CO emissions, and about 35 percent of emissions of HC and

NOx [Nizich et al. 1994]. Most of emissions are generated in the combustion process and

from evaporation of the fuel itself. Gasoline and diesel fuels are comprised of hydrocarbons

and compounds of hydrogen and carbon atoms. In a perfect combustion, all the hydrogen in

the fuel is converted to water and the carbon is changed to carbon dioxide. Unfortunately,

the perfect combustion process is impossible to achieve in the real word, and many pollutants

result as by-products of this combustion process and from evaporation of the fuel [EPA

1994a]. The principal pollutants emitted from typical motor engines are carbon monoxide,

hydrocarbon, and oxides of nitrogen. Carbon monoxide (CO), a product of incomplete



combustion, is a colorless, odorless and poisonous gas. CO reduces the flow of oxygen in

the bloodstream and is harmful to every living organism. In some urban areas, the motor

vehicle contribution to carbon monoxide emissions can exceed 90 percent [EPA 1993 a].

Hydrocarbon (HC) emissions result from fuel that does not burn completely in the engine. It

reacts with nitrogen oxides and sunlight to form ozone, which is a major component of

smog. Ozone is one of the EPA’s defined pollutants known to cause irritations of the eyes,

damage the lung tissue and affect the well-being of the human respiratory system.

Furthermore, hydrocarbons emitted by vehicle exhaust systems are also toxic and are known

to cause cancer in the long term [EPA 1994a].

While CO and HC are the products of the incomplete combustion of motor fuels, oxides of

nitrogen (NOx) are formed differently. NOx is formed by the reaction of nitrogen and

oxygen atoms during high pressure and temperature, the chemical process that occur during

the combustion. NOx also leads to the formation of ozone and contributes to the

formation of acid rain [EPA 1994a].

The air/fuel (A/F) ratio is one of the most important variables affecting the efficiency of

catalytic converters and the level of exhaust emissions (Johnson 1988). The highest CO

and HC levels are produced under fuel-rich conditions, and the highest NOx level is emitted

under fuel-lean conditions. Generally, fuel-rich operations occur during cold- start

conditions or under heavy engine loads such as during rapid accelerations at high speeds and

on steep grades. Therefore, high levels of CO and HC are generated on congested highways

and in other high traffic density areas.



2.7 MANUFACTUERE’S TECHNOLOGY TO CONTROL EMISSION

Controlling Emissions

The first method used for controlling emissions produced by the automobile was to have

precise control over the carburetor or fuel injection system, which provided Accurate mixtures

of fuel and air for complete combustion. During idling, the fuel Mixture was either made to be

completely combustible, or was cut off. Devices that were sensitive to manifold pressure,

tapped immediately downstream of the Throttle, were employed to retard the ignition during

slow engine speeds. Gulp valves were produced to compensate for the lack of air when the

throttle is suddenly closed, allowing for the fuel to be completely combusted. High

temperature thermostats were employed to improve cold whether combustion. Positive

crankcase ventilation (PCV), was employed to eliminate the crankcase fumes.

To combat the problems with Nitrogen Oxide (NOx), Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), was

used to lower the temperature of combustion. This was needed because to production

of Nitrogen Oxide(NOx) took place generally above 1350 degrees Celsius.(Garrett w. balich

and Conrad R. Aschenbach. May 2004)

2.7.1 CATALYTIC CONVERSION

General Motors was the first automotive company to employ the catalytic converter as a

standard feature on their automobiles to meet the rising emissions regulations during the early

70's. They chose this approach to comply with regulations, while keeping the durability of

their engines. In addition to this change, they also argued the benefits of unleaded gasoline,

which would eliminate lead oxyhalide salts, reduce the combustion chamber deposits, further

reducing HC due to additional oxidation with the lack of lead. Basic maintenance on the



vehicle was reduced, and it assisted in the use of the catalytic converter and overlooked the

alleged toxic effects of leaded salts in the environment from leaded gas going through the

converter.

The two way catalytic converter is made up from a container, constructed of stainless steel,

and the catalysts and supporting features inside the container. Around the converter, an

aluminum heat shield protects nearby parts of the automobile from potential damaging heat.

The two catalysts usually used are platinum and palladium, or in some cases, just platinum. In

the two way converter, HC and H2O are Oxidized and converted to form H2O and CO2. The

support piece for the catalysts was developed into a one piece honey comb structure, which

had large surface areas on which the catalysts were deposited.

They operated at 550 degrees Celsius under normal working conditions. This type has the

advantage over pellet type converters because of their more compact form. Later

improvements lead to the use of metals instead of ceramics for use as the monoliths, support

pieces, to meet the needs of durability and very high, changing Temperatures.

In 1978, General Motors developed the three way catalytic converter, which now dealt with

the NOx part of the emissions. The three way converter now employed two stages opposed to

the one stage in the two way converter. An additional chamber now used Rhodium for the

reduction of NOx. With this advance, 95 percent of NOx in a 0.1 percent rich mixture could

be removed. This additional step had to be placed before the oxidation of HC and CO because

of the needs to reduce atmosphere call for a rich mixture. For this, a closed loop system must

be employed to regulate the supply of fuel accurately according to the incoming air mass,

which can be accomplished with the lambda sensor. (Garrett w. balich and Conrad R.

Aschenbach. May 2004)



2.7.2 ENGINE MANAGEMENT

When an engine is cold starting, it must be switched from a closed loop to an open loop

system, which will then provide the necessary rich mixture for ignition. During this operation,

the air supplied to the second chamber in the three way converter is diverted to the exhaust

manifold, which then avoids a rapid rise in temperature and overloading in the second stage of

the converter. And because of the low temperature in the cylinders, there is minimal NOx

produced, so it is not necessary to worry about the first stage of the converter during the

starting sequence. (Garrett w. balich and Conrad R. Aschenbach. May 2004)

2.7.3 EVAPORATIVE EMISSIONS

The evaporative emissions are mostly composed of HC, generally from 4 sources:

Fuel tank venting system, carburetor venting system, permeation through plastic tanks, and

through the crankcase vent. [2] To combat the fuel tank vent problems, a carbon canister is

employed to catch the exiting fumes, which periodically needs to be cleaned. The permeation

through the tank walls can be solved with one of several methods: sulphur trioxide treatment,

fuel system lamination, fluorine treatment, or the Du Pont one-shot injection molding. [2] All

of these methods act as barriers which successfully block the emissions. From the total HC

pollution, the crankcase used to account for 25 percent of the total. To prevent this source of

toxins, the crankcase fumes are vented into the induction manifold through a close circuit by a

positive ventilation system. Then the excess HC is burnt in the combustion process in the

cylinder. The positive flow is provided through a venting system into the cylinder heads,

which is capped off with an air filter. In order to prevent the back flow of the HC fumes, a



valve is employed to stop back flow, limit suction in the crankcase, and lastly to avoid

upsetting the flow at slow engine speeds.

Additional parts have been employed to reduce emissions, such as the gulp valve. The gulp

valve is used to account for conditions such as a sudden release of the throttle. In a situation

like this, the fuel mixture momentarily is still delivered to the engine, but the air needed for

complete combustion is taken away. The gulp valve is used to provide the necessary additional

air to allow for the complete combustion of the fuel, thereby reducing emissions. (Garrett w.

balich and Conrad R. Aschenbach. May 2004)



3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter a talks about sample size of the research, methods and equipment’s used in

carrying out the experiment. The method used for this research was an experimental method.

3.1.1 EQUIPMENTS USED IN THE EXPERIMENT

The experimental equipment’s included: Dynostar Chassis Dynamometer,

Exhaust Gas Analyser (Tecalemit TG 400), Ford Focus vehicle (gasoline engine manual and

front wheel drive)

3.1.2 DYNAMOMETER

There are two basic types of Dynamometer - Absorption Dynamometer and Universal or

Motoring Dynamometer. Absorption dynamometer is designed for driving purpose whereas

Universal dynamometer is used both for absorption and driving. Apart from these two there

are also other types of dynamometer used for various other functions. In fact dynamometer is

an important device in the world of engineering which finds its application in many sectors.

One of the most important types of Dynamometer is the Engine dynamometer. It is directly

attached to the engine of the car. Chassis dynamometer is another type of specific

dynamometer, which is used to measure the twisting movement (torque) and the power or the

energy emitted by the power train of an automobile directly from the wheels or the drive

wheels. (www.powerdynamometer.com ) 19/05/2011

http://www.powerdynamometer.com/

http://www.powerdynamometer.com/



The chassis dynamometer was chosen by the researcher over the engine dynamometer because

its availability in the schools workshop and because of its ability to stimulate engine with load,

enable road wheels to roll just like vehicle is moving on the surface of the road.

Figure 3. Dynostar Dynamometer



3.1.3 EXHAUST GAS ANALYSER

The exhaust gas analyzer is an instrument used to measure the products of combustion of

vehicles. There are various types of exhaust gas analyzers which can be used for various

purposes. The TG400 analyzer is a 4 Gas analyzer which is designed to measure carbon

monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), unburned hydrocarbons (HC), Lambda and oxygen

(O2) simultaneously in the exhaust gases of vehicles with 4 stroke petrol engines, it can also

be used for other purposes such as opacity test, fault diagnostic etc. The analyzer is able to

printout the results of the test for analysis and also has a function that can enable the user to

enter details of Garage where the test took place, details of vehicle etc. There are lots of

exhaust gas analyzers even once with more advance technology which can also be used for the

experiment but reason for choosing this equipment is because that is the one available in the

School of Engineering Automobile workshop.

Figure 4. (TECALEMIT GARAGE) TG400 EXAUST GAS ANALYSER



3.1.4 FORD FOCUS

The School’s workshop has two live engines on stands, two petrol engine vehicles (Opel

omega B and Ford Focus 2001 model), one Nissan Pick-up diesel engine. But the researcher

choose Ford Focus over all these, because the research topic expect the researcher to measurer

emission characteristics of gasoline engine at high load, engines on stands do not have loads

such as air condition to enable engine run at high load, Diesel engine was out because the

topic expects the researcher to measurer emission characteristics of gasoline engine, Opel

omega B was also not used by the researcher because it is defective as at the time of the

experiment, which might affect results of experiments

Figure 5. FORD FOCUS 2001



3.2 SPECIFICATION OF FORD FOCUS

The researcher used a 2001 hatch back, front wheel drive with manual transmission, engine

size - 2.0 liters, Base engine type I-4, Horsepower - 130 hp., Horsepower rpm - 5,300, Torque

- 135 lb-ft, Torque rpm - 4,500, Payload - 990 lbs., Maximum towing capacity - 1,000 lbs.,

Turning radius 17.9, Length - 168.1, Body width - 66.9, Body height - 56.3, Wheelbase -

103.0, Wheel size – 196/60 rim 15, Curb - 2,551 lbs.

3.3.0. METHOD OF THE DATA COLLECTION

(EXPERIMENTAL WORK)

The researcher in performing the experiment used a four gas Analyser to test for one gasoline

engine four stroke Ford Focus vehicles to test the emission characteristics of gasoline engine

at high load and low load. Before the experiment started:

3.3.1. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDUE

1. The vehicle was driven unto the chassis dynamometer and well locked to ensure safety to

prevent vehicle from slipping off the dynamometer during experiment.

2. The analyzer is switched on, it then went through the preheating and calibration stage for

some minutes, after that a leak test was performed by the researcher, a fail leak test would not

allow the test to continue. After the leak test a hydrocarbon residual test is done for the test to

commence



3. A cable was connected from the analyzer to the number one spark plug high tension lead

and then to the ground, this allows the analyzer to read the idling speed of the engine.

4. The researcher then removed the dip stick and inserts a probe in to the engine, this allows

the analyzer to read the temperature of the engine.

5. The researcher inserted another probe in to the exhaust tail pipe as the engine run on idling

speed

6. The analyzer then displayed results of the constituents of the exhaust gas on the screen

7. Measurements were performed when the temperature is above 80 degrees (thus the engines

working temperature)

7. The researcher then printed out the results and gathered them for analysis.

Figure 6. Shows how the vehicle was fixed on the dynamometer



Figure 7. Shows connections to spark plug cable and engine oil temperature gauge hole

3.3 SAMPLE SIZE

The researcher used one Ford Focus Vehicle for the experiment.



4 RESULTS, ANANLYSIS AND DISCUSION

This chapter deals with a summary of the empirical result obtained from the experiment, using

the data collection method explained in chapter three to describe and explain the contribution

of engine load and emission characteristics of Gasoline engine.

4.1 RESULTS DATA ANALYSIS

The research has revealed that emissions characteristics of gasoline engine changes with the

respect engine load or engine operation condition (idling condition vehicle in motion),each

emission gas has condition under which it increases, be it high load or low load.

Figure 8. shows reading of gases at low engine load

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

%VOL CO %CO2 %PPM vol. HC

0.05

14.3

132

LOW LOAD

%VOL CO

%CO2

%PPM vol. HC



4.2 LOW LOAD EMISSION ANALYSIS

The emission level under low load engine condition was close to achievements CO level was

achieved, CO2 level was also achieved even beyond it requirement but HC which is rather

made up of partially burnt fuel, and a major contributor to urban smog, as well as being toxic

and also causes liver damage and even cancer was not achieved, it value was 132 which is

%PPM vol. 32 times more than the manufacturers requirement, this results from the

experiment indicates that combustion process was not complete under this engine operation

condition

Figure 9. shows reading of gases at low engine load

0

50

100

150

200

250


0.1713.9

249

HIGH LOAD

%VOL CO

%CO2

%PPM vol. HC



4.3 CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH ENGINE IS SAID TO BE RUNING ON HIGH

LOAD

Engine is said to running on a high load when it is climbing hill, taking off from rest or when

components that receives their source of energy from the engine are turned on, in this

operation mode, the engine recognize these things as obstacles to its smooth operating and

smooth running they turn to detriment the functions of the engine, therefore the engine would

need required a richer mixture to overcome this obstacles, by doing this the engine would

require any fuel to air ratio, anything lesser than 14.7:1 to enable more fuel than air to be burnt

for combustion.

4.4 ENGINE OPERATING IN HIGH LOAD CONDITION

The experiment revealed that when the engine is operating in high engine operation

hydrocarbon emission gas had a value of 249, carbon dioxide 13.9, carbon monoxide 0.17,

comparing this result obtained by the researcher by measuring emission level of ford focus

2001,hatch back model has it hydrocarbon emission level was 149 times more than its

required level by the manufactures specification carbon dioxide level was also 0.12 also

falling below the manufacturers requirement by 0.6. From the analysis vehicle was not

running on its requirement by its manufacture, hydro carbon and carbon monoxide level

increased while carbon dioxide level decreased in this operation condition.

HIGH



LOAD AND LOW LOAD RESULTS DIFFERENCES

Figure 10. shows low load and high load differences

0

50

100

150

200

250


0.1713.9

249

0.05

14.3

132

HIGH LOAD

LOW LOAD



Figure 11. show auto data requirement for exhaust gases readings

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100


AUTODATA REQUIREMENT FOR FORD

FOCUS

%VOL CO

%CO2

%PPM vol. HC



5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This chapter of the research work deals with the summary of findings as gathered from the

experimental work, library searches, internet searches and suggested recommendations and

conclusions of the research

5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

The results of the experiment shows that Carbon dioxide, Carbon monoxide, Hydrocarbon

emissions raises when engine loads, temperature and engine RPM’s are increased.

5.2 CONCLUSIONS

The researcher concludes that vehicle emissions level increases considerably with respect to

engine load. However, if any of the engine management sensors that control emissions fails

emission levels go high beyond acceptable level.



5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

In order to reduce vehicle emission pollution and it effect on our environment, the researcher

after the study, recommends that,

1. The Government should help the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) to come out

with legislation and emission standards to regulate emission levels of vehicles

especially those entering the country.

2. Government should provide exhaust Gas Analyzers to all Driver Vehicle and

Licensing Authorities (DVLA) in the country to enable them include emission level

test before issuing vehicle Road Worthiness Certificate.

3. The Transport Ministry, EPA in collaboration with the Ministry of Health should

organize education programs to educate vehicle owners, drivers and the general public

about the effect of emission and its effect on the environment.

4. Vehicle owners and drivers should ensure regular maintenance and tuning of their

engines for a considerable reduction of emission.

5. Vehicle owners and drivers should be encouraged not allow Way-side mechanics to

disconnect components that are put on their vehicles by the, because most of these

components are emission control devices.

6. Vehicle owners who wants to add components which were not originally installed by

the manufacturer should be force to use of alternative fuel such LPG (Liquefy

Petroleum Gas) because of the impact of engine load on emission characteristics



6.0. REFERENCES

6.1. BOOKS

• Tom Denton. Advance Automotive Fault Diagnosis 2nd

Edition. Pp 61-64

Kyoungho Ahn. (1998) consumption and Emission Modeling Microscopic Fuel,

Blacksburg, Virginia, December 1998.

• J Hughes, K., Martz, L., & Denton. (1990) the Air Resources Board's Risk

.Engineering Symposium, California USA, December 1990.

• Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews VOL. 9. 6 December 2005 pp. 535-555.

• McGraw Hill, 1988.Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals

• Bosch Automotive Hand book 7th Edition. Pp566

• Grant, L.D., Graham, J.A., Kotchmar

• D.J. & Tilton, B.E. (1993) International workshop on human health and environmental

effects of motor vehicle fuels and their exhaust emissions.

6.2. WEB PAGES

• NSW EPA, 1999. , [on line] at http://www.dieselnet.com

• Gizmo.com [on line] at http://image.google.com.gh (accessed date 15/03/2011)

• Garrett W. Balich and Conrad R. Aschenbach. May 2004 The Gasoline 4-Stroke

engine for Automobiles [on line] at http://www.nd/ed/Teching/dirstudies/Gas 4

Stroke.pdf . (accessed date 23/03/2011)

Rosen (Ed).Erwin M., 1975. The Peterson automotive trouble shooting & repairs

manual [On line] at http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/air/pdfs .(Accessed date

http://www.dieselnet.com/



http://image.google.com.gh/


http://www.nd/ed/Teching/dirstudies/Gas%204%20Stroke.pdf



http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/air/pdfs









20/03/11)

• QDOE, 1998. http://www.transport.qld.gov.au/Home/General.information

(Accessed date 16/12/10.)

http://www.En. Wikipedia.org (Accessed date/3/10/2010)



APPENDIX

GAS HYDROCARBON CARBON DIOXIDE CARBON

MONOXIDE

LOW LOAD

EMISSION

READING

132 13.9 0.05

HIGH LOAD

EMISSION

READING

249 14.3 0.17

emission charateristics of gasoline engine at high load - copy

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