20

19

HISTORICAL JCC:Reign of Terror

1793-1794

STUDY GUIDE

This document is prepared solely for educational purposes and cannot be used for any commercial purpose. No copyright infringement intended. Please consider the environment before printing.

Historical JCC: Reign of Terror Study GuideEuropean Union Simulation in Ankara (EUROsimA) 2019www.eurosima.org

Organised by Middle East Technical UniversityÜniversiteler mah. Dumlupınar Bulvarı No:1İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi B Binası Zemin Kat 06800, Çankaya, Ankara, Turkey

EUROsimA 2019 Ankara - Turkey,2019

Foreign Policy and International Relations Club

3

Table of Contents

LETTER FROM SECRETARY-GENERAL

LETTER FROM UNDER SECRETARY-GENERAL

BACKGROUND

I. BEGINNING OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789)

A. PRELUDE

1.7 YEARS WAR (1756-1763)

2.NATIONAL DEBT & TAXATION

3.ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS AND REVOLUTIONARY SENTIMENT

B. THE REVOLUTION (1789)

C. CIVIL CONSTITUTION OF THE CLERGY (1790)

II. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF NATIONAL CONVENTION (1792)

A. LEADING EVENTS

B. TRIAL AND EXECUTION OF KING LOUIS XVI

C. COMMITTEES

1. COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC SAFETY

2. COMMITTEE OF GENERAL SECURITY

STANCES AND EVENTS

I. PROMINENT STANCES

A. EGALITARIANISM

B. CULT OF REASON

II. RISE OF JACOBINS

A. JUNCTION WITH THE NATIONAL CONVENTION

B. MONTAGNARDS

1. BOURGEOISIE

2. JACQUES HEBERT AND SANS-CULOTTES

C. GIRONDINS

D. THE PLAINS

THE TERROR PERIOD

I. BEGINNING OF TERROR (1793)

A.THE RISE OF MAXIMILIEN ROBESPIERRE AND MONTAGNARDS

B.WARS OF VENDEE

C. NEW REGULATIONS

1. LAWS OF MAXIMUM

2. RELIGION AND DECHRISTIANIZATION

II. REVOLUTIONARY TRIBUNAL AND THE PURGE

III. ADOPTED DOCUMENTS OF COPS

1. LAW OF SUSPECTS

2. JACOBIN CONSTITUTION OF 1793

THE END

I.THERMIDORIAN REACTION

A. LAW OF 22 PRAIRAL

B. UPRISINGS AND THE ARREST OF ROBESPIERRE

II. AFTERMATH

III. PROBLEMS TO BE ADDRESSED

IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY

B.WARS OF VENDEE

C. NEW REGULATIONS

1. LAWS OF MAXIMUM

2. RELIGION AND DECHRISTIANIZATION

II. REVOLUTIONARY TRIBUNAL AND THE PURGE

III. ADOPTED DOCUMENTS OF COPS

1. LAW OF SUSPECTS

2. JACOBIN CONSTITUTION OF 1793

THE END

I.THERMIDORIAN REACTION

A. LAW OF 22 PRAIRAL

B. UPRISINGS AND THE ARREST OF ROBESPIERRE

II. AFTERMATH

III. PROBLEMS TO BE ADDRESSED

IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Letter from the Secretary-General

Most Distinguished Participants,

My name is Duygu ÇINAR and I am currently a senior in Middle East Technical University,

studying International Relations. After having participated in this conference twice as an Under-

Secretary General, it is an incredible honor to serve as this year’s Secretary General; along with my

invaluable Deputy, Ms. Ecem Ersözlü.

It is my utmost pleasure to welcome all of you to the 15th edition of EUROsimA, which still

to this day remains as the sole European Union Simulation in Turkey. I hope the hard work of our

team will be conveyed in the conference and you will have a memorable experience.

The French Revolution had consequences that still affect our modern day and it is regarded as

one of the main contributing factors for the spread of the establishment of republics and liberal

democracies; as well as the eventual decline of the absolute monarchies. Although the events of

1789 are considered to be one of the most influential in modern history and remembered for their

positive influences to our society; the following years of the Revolution would result in some of

the most violent periods in European history that were named as the “Reign of Terror” or “La

Terreur” by historians. Between 1793 and 1794, more than sixteen thousand people were officially

executed, proving that the alias is not an overstatement.

To say that this study guide required extensive research and extreme academic rigor would

be an underestimation and it could not be possible without the invaluable work of İlkyaz Deniz

Bilgiç and her sublime academic assistants Feyzan Güngör and Oğuzhan Sabuncu. They managed

to write one of the most comprehensive historical guides I’ve ever read and I am certain that their

phenomenal work will continue during the conference as well, with multiple crises that they will

write. Without a doubt, “Reign of Terror” will be one of the most enjoyable historical simulations

in EUROsimA history.

Kindest Regards,

Duygu ÇINAR

Secretary-General of EUROsimA 2019

7

Letter From Under-Secretary-General

Highly Esteemed Participants,Before starting with my letter, I would like to cordially welcome you all to this year’s

edition of EUROsimA 2019, which it will celebrate its glorious 15th year. My name is İlkyaz Deniz Bilgiç and I am currently enrolled as a sophomore student in the Department of Psychology in Middle East Technical University. I am serving as the Under-Secretary-General responsible for the Historical Joint Crisis Cabinet (JCC): Reign of Terror 1793-1794. I would like to express my highest gratitude for being in this position before and throughout the conference.

During the next 4 days, we will be simulating one of the most memorable and maybe the fiercest years of European history. Our carefully prepared two cabinets, the Committee of Public Safety (COPS) and the Committee of General Security (COGS) will try to overcome various crises while maintaining the welfare of the new regime. Dealing with many different problems and being obliged to consider different parameters at the same time will be a great challenge for our delegates. Two cabinets will have a total of 24 members representing the most powerful and intelligent personalities from the past. Please read this Study Guide thoroughly since it will give you the adequate starting point that you need before delivering your best during the conference. You will try to find peace within chaos and I wholeheartedly hope that this committee will be a lifelong experience for you.

Before concluding my letter, I would like to express my appreciation to my exceptional teammates whom I never had any doubts about, neither their academic quality nor their hearts’.Firstly, I would like to thank our honorable Secretary-General Ms. Duygu Çınar for her never-ending genuineness as well as her remarkable leadership throughout this road, and our dearest Deputy Secretary-General Ms. Ecem Ersözlü for intelligence, tireless help and most importantlyher cordial personality. I would also like to thank my loveliest Academic Assistants Ms. Feyzan Güngör and Mr. Oğuzhan Sabuncu for all of their efforts while creating this guide. I truly appreciate both of your existence in my life and in this conference.

Last but not least, I wish us a splendid conference filled with great memories and experiences. I cannot wait to see you all on 20th, and if you have any questions please do never hesitate to contact me via bilgic@eurosima.org.

Warmest Regards,

İlkyaz Deniz BİLGİÇ

Under-Secretary-General Responsible for Historical JCC-Reign of Terror

8

Letter From Under-Secretary-General

Highly Esteemed Participants,Before starting with my letter, I would like to cordially welcome you all to this year’s

edition of EUROsimA 2019, which it will celebrate its glorious 15th year. My name is İlkyaz Deniz Bilgiç and I am currently enrolled as a sophomore student in the Department of Psychology in Middle East Technical University. I am serving as the Under-Secretary-General responsible for the Historical Joint Crisis Cabinet (JCC): Reign of Terror 1793-1794. I would like to express my highest gratitude for being in this position before and throughout the conference.

During the next 4 days, we will be simulating one of the most memorable and maybe the fiercest years of European history. Our carefully prepared two cabinets, the Committee of Public Safety (COPS) and the Committee of General Security (COGS) will try to overcome various crises while maintaining the welfare of the new regime. Dealing with many different problems and being obliged to consider different parameters at the same time will be a great challenge for our delegates. Two cabinets will have a total of 24 members representing the most powerful and intelligent personalities from the past. Please read this Study Guide thoroughly since it will give you the adequate starting point that you need before delivering your best during the conference. You will try to find peace within chaos and I wholeheartedly hope that this committee will be a lifelong experience for you.

Before concluding my letter, I would like to express my appreciation to my exceptional teammates whom I never had any doubts about, neither their academic quality nor their hearts’.Firstly, I would like to thank our honorable Secretary-General Ms. Duygu Çınar for her never-ending genuineness as well as her remarkable leadership throughout this road, and our dearest Deputy Secretary-General Ms. Ecem Ersözlü for intelligence, tireless help and most importantlyher cordial personality. I would also like to thank my loveliest Academic Assistants Ms. Feyzan Güngör and Mr. Oğuzhan Sabuncu for all of their efforts while creating this guide. I truly appreciate both of your existence in my life and in this conference.

Last but not least, I wish us a splendid conference filled with great memories and experiences. I cannot wait to see you all on 20th, and if you have any questions please do never hesitate to contact me via bilgic@eurosima.org.

Warmest Regards,

İlkyaz Deniz BİLGİÇ

Under-Secretary-General Responsible for Historical JCC-Reign of Terror

I) BACKGROUND

A. The Beginning of the French Revolution (1789)

i. Prelude

a. Seven Years War (1756-1763)

In order to understand the reasons and origin of the Reign of Terror, it is crucial for one to

get an in-depth understanding of the events that have led to it. Seven Years War is the first one to

mention since it was the war which had laid the foundation of French-Britain rivalry and most

importantly, triggered the start of the Revolution. The war began in 1756 including the whole of

Europe, America, India and ended with the Paris Peace Treaty.1 The hidden-originators of the war,

France and Britain had formed their own alliances and eventually Britain was allied with Prussia

and Hanover while France chose Austria, Sweden, Russia and Spain for her side.2

The main reasons behind this rivalry between these two countries can be explained with

two approaches, commercial and colonial. Although the war contained the name of other countries

as well, it had become a race between two front-runner countries for abovementioned reasons.

Britain mainly attacked the French navy and its colonials but could not get any retaliation due to

the French’s huge efforts to defend themselves only in European soil. Even though the first year

was successful for the French, with the attacks on the sea and the invasion of Indian colonies which

were owned by France has brought Britain to a more advantageous point.3 Witnessing the situation,

France has proposed negotiation talks but this offer was rejected by the British government after

the French government has found the proposed commercial concessions unacceptable. The carrier

of monarchy, King Louis XV has decided to make an alliance called ‘Family Compact' with his

cousin- who was Spanish King Charles III on 15th of August 1761.4 According to the agreement,

Spain had stated that they would declare war on Britain if the war did not end before May of 1962;

which actually had a reinvigorating effect on France to continue fighting.5

Eventually, Spain has participated into the war on June of 1962 but one thing that France

could not foresee was that the naval strength of Britain and inefficiency of the Spanish army which

1 Eccnes, William John. 2018. "Seven Years War | The Canadian Encyclopedia". The Canadian Encylopedia.https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/seven-years-war2 Ibid.3 History, State. 2018. "Milestones: 1750–1775 - Office Of The Historian". History.State.Gov.https://history.state.gov/milestones/1750-1775/french-indian-war.4 "BBC - History - King Louis XV". 2018. BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/louis_xv.sht. 5 Ibid.

9

concluded the war with a win for the British side. Thus in 1963, France has begun to seek peace

and ended with signing the Treaty of Paris which has led to the loss of all the colonies that the

French-owned in North America and also ensured the supremacy of Britain both in the colonial

and maritime means.6 The consequences of the 7 Years War can be seen in various fields such as

social, economic and most importantly political. The military wounds and financial burden that

was put upon France has weakened monarchy and the trust of citizens towards King Louis XV-

which has prepared a great baseline for the public to accumulate rage and discomfort.7

b. National Taxations

The taxation problem can be shown as one of the most important reasons for the Revolution

due to its excessiveness and importance for the French public. The ‘Ancien Régime’ (regime before

the revolution) had created a taxation system which was both unfair and inefficient- which had led

to a point where France had highest taxation rates of the 18th century but the lowest rates of gratified

citizens.8 The unsuccessful financial management in Seven Years War did not help this situation

either. The reason why the spending had peaked was mainly associated with the increasing

bureaucracy and moreover, the collection of the taxes was not satisfactory at all.9 The collection

system had enabled some ‘tax farmers' who were officially private contractors to collect the taxes

with no connection to an official department.10 This had led to various corruptions and tax

avoidances as well as starting unrest amongst Third Estate citizens since they were compensating

the majority of taxes while First and Second State citizens who were the county’s wealthiest paid

so little or even nothing.11 Although there were some improvements made by Jean-Baptise Colbert

who was the Minister of Finance at the time, it was not enough to compensate for the increasing

deficit.12 He tried to solve the problem via formerly abandoned strategies such as selling royal

lands, venal offices, raising taxes etc.13 He also tried to change the abovementioned system of ‘tax

6 "The French And Indian War Ends". 2018. HISTORY. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-french-and-indian-war-ends.7 Ibid.8 Llewellyn, Jennifer, and Steve Thompson. 2018. "Taxation As A Cause Of Revolution". French Revolution.https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/taxation/.9 Ibid.10 Plack, Noelle. 2018. "Liberty, Equality And Taxation: Wine In The French Revolution". Academia.Edu.http://www.academia.edu/3078620/Liberty_Equality_and_Taxation_Wine_in_the_French_Revolution.11 Ibid.12 Ibid.13 Ibid.

10

concluded the war with a win for the British side. Thus in 1963, France has begun to seek peace

and ended with signing the Treaty of Paris which has led to the loss of all the colonies that the

French-owned in North America and also ensured the supremacy of Britain both in the colonial

and maritime means.6 The consequences of the 7 Years War can be seen in various fields such as

social, economic and most importantly political. The military wounds and financial burden that

was put upon France has weakened monarchy and the trust of citizens towards King Louis XV-

which has prepared a great baseline for the public to accumulate rage and discomfort.7

b. National Taxations

The taxation problem can be shown as one of the most important reasons for the Revolution

due to its excessiveness and importance for the French public. The ‘Ancien Régime’ (regime before

the revolution) had created a taxation system which was both unfair and inefficient- which had led

to a point where France had highest taxation rates of the 18th century but the lowest rates of gratified

citizens.8 The unsuccessful financial management in Seven Years War did not help this situation

either. The reason why the spending had peaked was mainly associated with the increasing

bureaucracy and moreover, the collection of the taxes was not satisfactory at all.9 The collection

system had enabled some ‘tax farmers' who were officially private contractors to collect the taxes

with no connection to an official department.10 This had led to various corruptions and tax

avoidances as well as starting unrest amongst Third Estate citizens since they were compensating

the majority of taxes while First and Second State citizens who were the county’s wealthiest paid

so little or even nothing.11 Although there were some improvements made by Jean-Baptise Colbert

who was the Minister of Finance at the time, it was not enough to compensate for the increasing

deficit.12 He tried to solve the problem via formerly abandoned strategies such as selling royal

lands, venal offices, raising taxes etc.13 He also tried to change the abovementioned system of ‘tax

6 "The French And Indian War Ends". 2018. HISTORY. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-french-and-indian-war-ends.7 Ibid.8 Llewellyn, Jennifer, and Steve Thompson. 2018. "Taxation As A Cause Of Revolution". French Revolution.https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/taxation/.9 Ibid.10 Plack, Noelle. 2018. "Liberty, Equality And Taxation: Wine In The French Revolution". Academia.Edu.http://www.academia.edu/3078620/Liberty_Equality_and_Taxation_Wine_in_the_French_Revolution.11 Ibid.12 Ibid.13 Ibid.

farmers’ and instead created a very effective, new system of Ferme Générale (‘General Farm’)

which had an aim of creating a streamline tax collection by reducing the tax farmers. It actually

worked and the taxes were regulated but the situation lasted only until the death of Colbert, after

he passed away the situation went back to its old state.14 Before he died, the number of taxes

collected had reached 93.5 million and citizens rested finally but the number dropped down back

to 31 million again- to the number where the discomfort has reached to its peak point.15

Talking about its technical aspects, there were mainly two types of taxes: one being direct-

taxes and the other one was indirect-taxes.16 While direct taxes were collected by royal officials

and were levied on individuals, indirect taxes were collected by tax farmers. However, the problem

was, although the ratio of these two tax styles was expected to be equal, indirect taxes had made

up almost more than the half of government's income while direct taxes only accounted to the one-

third majority.17 Furthermore, the citizens of the Third Estate were also under the obligation of

making payments to the Catholic Church and to their lord in different forms-even with their

harvests.18

‘'The great evil of the taille is the unequal manner in which people are assessed by the authorities and the collectors, who favour their own friends to the detriment of the rest. The industry is taxed, so are talent, exertion and success. Every improvement a farmer makes on his ground exposes him to a heavier taille. A poor cobbler or another artisan, who has nothing in the world but his labour, is assessed four or five crowns a year. A baker at Gonesse, near Paris, who has not an inch of land, is assessed for his personal estate 1,200 French crowns''19

During the reign of Louis XVI, the general farmers became the wealthiest group after the

royal family; they even had the power to purchase enormous houses from royal areas, noble titles

etc. However, this power made them the most hated group amongst French citizens, cursed for

their never-ending greed. All of these intolerable changes in the financial status and more

14 Kreis, Smith. 2018. "The Origins Of The French Revolution". Historyguide.org.http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture11a.html.15 Ibid.16 Doyle, William. 2013. Origins Of The French Revolution. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.17 Ibid.18 Ibid.19 Andress, David. 2015. Oxford Handbook Of The French Revolution. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

11

importantly, lack of sensibility towards Third Estate citizens had created a great force for

Revolutionary Ideas to grow faster; but still not enough to break out as a whole.20

c. Enlightenment Ideas and Revolutionary Sentiment

The Revolution was not shaped nor did it gain traction in only one night- but it was rather

a cumulative mount which contained various ideas as well as triggers. Three major ideas can be,

and still are together in one slogan ‘Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité’ (Freedom, Equality, Fraternity).21

However, in order to understand the origin of these three words coming together, the process should

be studied. The first seeds were spread by the political philosophy of the Enlightenment which took

place all over Europe in 17th-18th centuries.22 It was an intellectual movement which brought the

ideas of God, reason, humanity into one worldview and took hold of

West as well as led to huge revolutions in politics, philosophy and art.23

The reason why this unification of new terms attracted a great amount

of attraction was its totally novel nature. Before the Enlightenment,

people only relied on the ‘dogmas' (unchangeable ideas) and religion

for their beliefs but "Reason" was a great deal for the change since it

was adopting the aim of people owning their power to comprehend

universe and enhance their status.24 Humanity could only reach to a

rational state with knowledge, freedom and happiness. Considering this

ideology, nothing could be more natural than French people being

Figure 1. Three Principles25 influenced by this ‘heavenly' new world without any censors or

oppressions put by the monarchy. Thus, it can be said that Enlightenment’s political philosophy

and writings have a great effect on the pre-process of the French Revolution.

20 Ibid.21 Foreign Affairs, Ministry of European. 2018. "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity". France Diplomatie :: Ministry For Europe And Foreign Affairs. https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/coming-to-france/france-facts/symbols-of-the-republic/article/liberty-equality-fraternity.22 La Vopa, Anthony J. 1992. "Conceiving A Public: Ideas And Society In Eighteenth-Century Europecritique And Crisis: Enlightenment And The Pathogenesis Of Modern Society.". The Journal Of Modern History 64 (1): 79-116. doi:10.1086/244442.23 Ibid.24 "Reason · Liberty, Equality, Fraternity". 2018. Chnm.Gmu.Edu. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/1.25 "The French Revolution." South African History Online. https://www.sahistory.org.za/jquery_ajax_load/get/article/french-revolution.

12

importantly, lack of sensibility towards Third Estate citizens had created a great force for

Revolutionary Ideas to grow faster; but still not enough to break out as a whole.20

c. Enlightenment Ideas and Revolutionary Sentiment

The Revolution was not shaped nor did it gain traction in only one night- but it was rather

a cumulative mount which contained various ideas as well as triggers. Three major ideas can be,

and still are together in one slogan ‘Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité’ (Freedom, Equality, Fraternity).21

However, in order to understand the origin of these three words coming together, the process should

be studied. The first seeds were spread by the political philosophy of the Enlightenment which took

place all over Europe in 17th-18th centuries.22 It was an intellectual movement which brought the

ideas of God, reason, humanity into one worldview and took hold of

West as well as led to huge revolutions in politics, philosophy and art.23

The reason why this unification of new terms attracted a great amount

of attraction was its totally novel nature. Before the Enlightenment,

people only relied on the ‘dogmas' (unchangeable ideas) and religion

for their beliefs but "Reason" was a great deal for the change since it

was adopting the aim of people owning their power to comprehend

universe and enhance their status.24 Humanity could only reach to a

rational state with knowledge, freedom and happiness. Considering this

ideology, nothing could be more natural than French people being

Figure 1. Three Principles25 influenced by this ‘heavenly' new world without any censors or

oppressions put by the monarchy. Thus, it can be said that Enlightenment’s political philosophy

and writings have a great effect on the pre-process of the French Revolution.

20 Ibid.21 Foreign Affairs, Ministry of European. 2018. "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity". France Diplomatie :: Ministry For Europe And Foreign Affairs. https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/coming-to-france/france-facts/symbols-of-the-republic/article/liberty-equality-fraternity.22 La Vopa, Anthony J. 1992. "Conceiving A Public: Ideas And Society In Eighteenth-Century Europecritique And Crisis: Enlightenment And The Pathogenesis Of Modern Society.". The Journal Of Modern History 64 (1): 79-116. doi:10.1086/244442.23 Ibid.24 "Reason · Liberty, Equality, Fraternity". 2018. Chnm.Gmu.Edu. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/1.25 "The French Revolution." South African History Online. https://www.sahistory.org.za/jquery_ajax_load/get/article/french-revolution.

Besides these abstract drives, French people had a lot of concrete examples too to guide them back

in the time. They knew that they were in need of a new system which could let them live in a more

egalitarian country and needed an example to imitate. The British political system was just what

they needed to examine since its tolerance of individual rights, freedom, constitutional basis and

division of powers were what they were looking for.26 The American Revolution had set a great

example for them as well since it was a real-life, worked out a demonstration of having a

"Revolution" and making it work in the way exactly how they imagined.27 One reason for this

similarity comes from the bond between two major Revolutionarists, Thomas Jefferson and

Marquis de Lafayette. Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence in 1776 which is the most

critical document for the American Revolution. Moreover, he also helped Lafayette while he was

writing the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789. These two documents had

the same fundamentals and changed their own period of Revolution. Pre-revolutionary period came

to an end with 6 concepts, namely liberty, equality, fraternity, popular sovereignty,

constitutionalism and natural rights.28

Liberty was the most wanted and heartfelt one since the public was fed up with imprisoning

of individuals, via a letter written by the King, without any trials or a due process such as Voltaire,

who was imprisoned for his denigrating writings or a regular citizen serving a sentence for

disgracing his family etc.29 There was great political oppression and a strong will for freedom in

return. Additionally, publication censorship was highly prominent since it had a demolishing effect

“sur l’esprit public” (on public spirit).30 All of the publication owners that criticized the Church

or King Louis were tortured.31 Eventually freedom of expression became a great need for citizens

and this need was enough to be the last drop before the breakout of revolution.

The need for equality was born out of the social structure that Ancien Régime had adopted

which was extremely unfair, especially upon the issue of taxation as mentioned above. However,

although the Third Estate and Second Estate citizens had reached a compromise on the fundamental

request of equality, they still did not reach a consensus upon how this equality would be

26 Doyle, William. 2013. Origins Of The French Revolution. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.27 Ibid.28 Llewellyn, Jennifer. 2018. "The Ideas Of The French Revolution". French Revolution.https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/revolutionary-ideas/.29 Winch, Donald. 2018. "Intellectual Repercussions Of The French Revolution". Intellectual History 1 (1): 1-12.30 Israel, Jonathan. 2014. "Revolutionary Ideas: An Intellectual History Of The French Revolution". Institute For Advanced Study. https://www.ias.edu/ideas/2014/israel-revolutionary-ideas.31 Ibid.

13

‘distributed'.32 The second Estate was composed of lords and ladies, mainly from ‘nobel' people

and since feudalism was still in action, commoners formed Third Estate with their majority. While

Second Estate wanted greater levels of equality due to their political and social status, they also

favored a system called "meritocracy" which organizes the society according to their achievements

rather than basic birth right privileges.33 However, that was a problem they overlooked since they

had to solve a more significant problem first, gaining their equality.

Fraternity, also defined as brotherhood, propagates unanimity between French citizens

while taking nationalism and concern for each citizen into focus.34 Unfortunately, it was the first

concept to fall apart before Revolution had taken place due to the nature of the Estates itself.

Although three estates were successful in taking action together up to a certain point, cooperation

ended as political divisions became more visible amongst groups and the revolution advanced.

Until the Revolution, the main idea of both Kings and even Governments was that their absolute

power and authority was coming from only God. It was a divine right that they were granted and

this idea also formed the concept of Monarchy.35

Figure 2. Painting ‘’Liberty Leading the People’’ by Eugene Delacroix36

32 Toma, Peter A., Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes, and M. Blondel. 1964. "What Is The Third Estate?". The Western Political Quarterly 17 (4): 12. doi:10.2307/444932.33 Ibid.34 Hanke, Eigil. 2018. "Liberty, Equality And Fraternity In The French Revolution". Dandebat.Dk. http://www.dandebat.dk/eng-hellig4.htm.35Ibid.36 "Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People." Khan Academy. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/later-europe-and-americas/enlightenment-revolution/a/delacroix-liberty-leading.

14

‘distributed'.32 The second Estate was composed of lords and ladies, mainly from ‘nobel' people

and since feudalism was still in action, commoners formed Third Estate with their majority. While

Second Estate wanted greater levels of equality due to their political and social status, they also

favored a system called "meritocracy" which organizes the society according to their achievements

rather than basic birth right privileges.33 However, that was a problem they overlooked since they

had to solve a more significant problem first, gaining their equality.

Fraternity, also defined as brotherhood, propagates unanimity between French citizens

while taking nationalism and concern for each citizen into focus.34 Unfortunately, it was the first

concept to fall apart before Revolution had taken place due to the nature of the Estates itself.

Although three estates were successful in taking action together up to a certain point, cooperation

ended as political divisions became more visible amongst groups and the revolution advanced.

Until the Revolution, the main idea of both Kings and even Governments was that their absolute

power and authority was coming from only God. It was a divine right that they were granted and

this idea also formed the concept of Monarchy.35

Figure 2. Painting ‘’Liberty Leading the People’’ by Eugene Delacroix36

32 Toma, Peter A., Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes, and M. Blondel. 1964. "What Is The Third Estate?". The Western Political Quarterly 17 (4): 12. doi:10.2307/444932.33 Ibid.34 Hanke, Eigil. 2018. "Liberty, Equality And Fraternity In The French Revolution". Dandebat.Dk. http://www.dandebat.dk/eng-hellig4.htm.35Ibid.36 "Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People." Khan Academy. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/later-europe-and-americas/enlightenment-revolution/a/delacroix-liberty-leading.

This concept was also broken down by the Enlightenment period since a new term had risen

which is called ‘popular sovereignty'. The name supposes that legitimate power only comes from

the support of people and there is a social contract between citizens and the government: that is the

source where authority comes from.37 Besides the philosophical discussion of this concept which

was already made by famous thinkers like Locke or Rousseau, the critical point is that if individuals

are not satisfied with their government they reserve the right to replace it. At this point, the Third

Estate comes into stage more powerful than ever, since they represent the majority of the nation.

Lastly, the concept of popular sovereignty is also one of the most significant justifications of the

Revolution, since it aims to change the primary source of the problem - the regime.38

Although abovementioned concepts were mainly driven by the needs and discontent of

Second and Third estate citizens, constitutionalism was primarily a great request of the members

belonging to Third Estate, who were at a point where broken promises and catastrophic failures

were no more options. That's why they were desperately in need of a constitution that finally

defines the functions and structure as well as new and in a written format. Also they hoped that this

new constitution would bring an end to authoritarianism, inconsistent decisions and finally create

a government that provides more benefits than harms. The Revolutionaries took the Declaration of

Independence which was drafted by Thomas Jefferson as a beginning point which was promulgated

in 1788 and they added the concepts of division of power, popular sovereignty etc.39

Natural rights, being the sixth and last concept was mainly and thoroughly explained by

famous philosopher John Locke as the rights that should be granted to all people no matter what

conditions, laws or governments they are living under - and these rights cannot be taken away

under any circumstance.40 When this idea's foundation is examined more in-depth, it can be seen

that Locke suggests three words to complete its nature: life, liberty and property. It

comprehensively meant that all of the individuals were to live their life free from oppression, as

well as any hindrances from obtaining property.41 According to him the preservation of these rights

37 Knutsen, John. 2018. "Popular Sovereignty". Basiclaw.Net. http://www.basiclaw.net/Principles/Popular%20sovereignty.htm.38 Ibid.39 Ibid.40 Burke, Edmund. 1958. Reflections On The Revolution In France. London: Oxford University Press.41 Ibid.

15

was meant to be maintained by the government and this idea has created the majority of drive while

the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was written in August 1789.42

ii. The Revolution

When the date was finally 1789, King Louis XVI and his monarchy had nearly collapsed due to

various wrong decisions and actions. The anger and unrest were flowing across all the Estates and

socio-economic classes. Raised funds, bad harvests, unfair taxing systems, the lack of empathy to

rural and urban poor had become too much for the French nation. While these were happening,

growing middle class (will further be referred to as ‘bourgeoisie') had already started to make

themselves heard with their disturbance with monarchy and eagerness for something more

egalitarian. Aware of all these reactions, the king called Estates-General –comprehensive name for

clergy, nobles and commoners, which were the growing three major orders in the society - for a

meeting with only the aim of collecting a bit of financial support. However, ‘representatives' could

not allocate the representation since the nobles and clergy wanted to vote by the order which would

give them an upper hand in gaining control and the Commons – which was the largest in number-

wanted their votes to be counted.

Seeing these authority clashes and debates which were not fruitful at all, on the10th of June,

Sieyès proposed and invited other representatives to form an assembly. Just after a week, with the

490-90 votes of nobles and clergyman, the National Assembly was established which was a great

counterattack to Louis's authority.43 On the day of 20th of June, 1789 all of the representatives were

ordered to get out of the meeting hall in Hôtel des Menus-Plaisirs at Versailles. This dismissal led

to a separate, informal convention at a place where was physically very close to where they were:

royal tennis courts.

42 Ibid. 43 Robinson, James Harvey. "The Tennis Court Oath." Political Science Quarterly 10, no. 3 (1895): 460. doi:10.2307/2139955.

16

was meant to be maintained by the government and this idea has created the majority of drive while

the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was written in August 1789.42

ii. The Revolution

When the date was finally 1789, King Louis XVI and his monarchy had nearly collapsed due to

various wrong decisions and actions. The anger and unrest were flowing across all the Estates and

socio-economic classes. Raised funds, bad harvests, unfair taxing systems, the lack of empathy to

rural and urban poor had become too much for the French nation. While these were happening,

growing middle class (will further be referred to as ‘bourgeoisie') had already started to make

themselves heard with their disturbance with monarchy and eagerness for something more

egalitarian. Aware of all these reactions, the king called Estates-General –comprehensive name for

clergy, nobles and commoners, which were the growing three major orders in the society - for a

meeting with only the aim of collecting a bit of financial support. However, ‘representatives' could

not allocate the representation since the nobles and clergy wanted to vote by the order which would

give them an upper hand in gaining control and the Commons – which was the largest in number-

wanted their votes to be counted.

Seeing these authority clashes and debates which were not fruitful at all, on the10th of June,

Sieyès proposed and invited other representatives to form an assembly. Just after a week, with the

490-90 votes of nobles and clergyman, the National Assembly was established which was a great

counterattack to Louis's authority.43 On the day of 20th of June, 1789 all of the representatives were

ordered to get out of the meeting hall in Hôtel des Menus-Plaisirs at Versailles. This dismissal led

to a separate, informal convention at a place where was physically very close to where they were:

royal tennis courts.

42 Ibid. 43 Robinson, James Harvey. "The Tennis Court Oath." Political Science Quarterly 10, no. 3 (1895): 460. doi:10.2307/2139955.

Figure 3. Painting “The Tennis Court Oath at Versailles” by Jacques–Louis David44

In this convention, Third Estate (with the support of the clergy and noble) has declared

themselves to be the new governing body of the Assembly and 577 deputies took an oath which

was written by Emmanuel Sieyès and administered by Jean-Sylvain Bailly, making sure that they

would stay together until a new, reasonable constitution was drafted and adopted. King Louis made

some attempts to negotiate with the deputies of this new Assembly, none of the debates could

convince the King to accept their request fully but only ‘in principle’. At the end of this inert

negotiation session, King’s representative left the hall and Mirabeau made his famous remark: “Go

tell your masters who have sent you that we shall not leave, except by the force of bayonets”.45

This statement was followed by King Louis XVI allocating troops all over the country and

thus alarmed the middle class and peasants, igniting the flame of a crucial moment for the

Revolution. On the 14th of July, the Bastille prison which was keeping only 7 prisoners was attacked

by a furious crowd. The Bastille prison was chosen over other buildings because it had 30-metre

high towers which were dominating the Parisian skyline: a metaphorical sign of tyrannical rule of

the monarchy in France. The attack had nothing to do with the prisoners inside, but rather the

44 "The Tennis Court Oath at Versailles by Jacques–Louis David." Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/633. 45 "The Tennis Court Oath, Versailles, 1789." The British Library - The British Library. April 05, 2006. Accessed March 19, 2019. http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/utopia/revolution1/tennis1/tennis.html.

17

massive amount of ammunition that were kept inside of it. Soon after, the crowd took control, the

prison governor was killed, and his head was carried around the streets as a pre-warning. This

storming is still accepted as the first action of the French Revolution as it has fired the flare - and

there were more to come.46

On 26th of August, another remarkable milestone for the Revolution happened, the

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (the Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du

citoyen) was passed by the newly established National Assembly.47 It was written with great

admiration towards Magna Carta and defined the individual as well as collective rights as they

were natural, universal and inalienable. It was also hugely inspired by other philosophers and their

thoughts such as Jean-Jacque Rousseau's ‘Du Contrat Social' (The Social Contract). His book

suggests a legitimate political authority can be only provided by a social contract, with a consensus

for a mutual preservation. Another important one is Montesquieu's ‘separation of powers', as it says

governance of a country can be safeguarded by the separation and independence of powers as

legislative, executive and judicial functions.

The first 5 articles of the Declaration were as follows:

“Article I. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.Article II. The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.Article III. The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body nor individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation.Article IV. Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else; hence the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to the other members of the society the enjoyment of the same rights. These limits can only be determined by law.Article V. Law can only prohibit such actions as are hurtful to society. Nothing may be prevented which is not forbidden by law, and no one may be forced to do anything not provided for by law.”48

46 "July 2014: Storming the Bastille (July 14, 1789) | Origins: Current Events in Historical Perspective." Origins. Accessed March, 2019. http://origins.osu.edu/milestones/july-2014-storming-bastille.47 Assembly, France. National Constituent. "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen Adopted by the National Assembly during Its Sessions on August 20, 21, 25 and 26, 1789, and Approved by the King." WDL RSS. January 01, 1789. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.wdl.org/en/item/14430/. 48 "Declaration of the Rights of Man And Citizen." Declaration of the Rights of Man And Citizen. Accessed March,2019. http://www.columbia.edu/~iw6/docs/dec1793.html.

18

massive amount of ammunition that were kept inside of it. Soon after, the crowd took control, the

prison governor was killed, and his head was carried around the streets as a pre-warning. This

storming is still accepted as the first action of the French Revolution as it has fired the flare - and

there were more to come.46

On 26th of August, another remarkable milestone for the Revolution happened, the

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (the Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du

citoyen) was passed by the newly established National Assembly.47 It was written with great

admiration towards Magna Carta and defined the individual as well as collective rights as they

were natural, universal and inalienable. It was also hugely inspired by other philosophers and their

thoughts such as Jean-Jacque Rousseau's ‘Du Contrat Social' (The Social Contract). His book

suggests a legitimate political authority can be only provided by a social contract, with a consensus

for a mutual preservation. Another important one is Montesquieu's ‘separation of powers', as it says

governance of a country can be safeguarded by the separation and independence of powers as

legislative, executive and judicial functions.

The first 5 articles of the Declaration were as follows:

“Article I. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.Article II. The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.Article III. The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body nor individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation.Article IV. Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else; hence the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to the other members of the society the enjoyment of the same rights. These limits can only be determined by law.Article V. Law can only prohibit such actions as are hurtful to society. Nothing may be prevented which is not forbidden by law, and no one may be forced to do anything not provided for by law.”48

46 "July 2014: Storming the Bastille (July 14, 1789) | Origins: Current Events in Historical Perspective." Origins. Accessed March, 2019. http://origins.osu.edu/milestones/july-2014-storming-bastille.47 Assembly, France. National Constituent. "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen Adopted by the National Assembly during Its Sessions on August 20, 21, 25 and 26, 1789, and Approved by the King." WDL RSS. January 01, 1789. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.wdl.org/en/item/14430/. 48 "Declaration of the Rights of Man And Citizen." Declaration of the Rights of Man And Citizen. Accessed March,2019. http://www.columbia.edu/~iw6/docs/dec1793.html.

King Louis XVI has finally rejected to accept the document, which has incited the nation

more than everything else.

iii. Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790)

The supporters of the Revolution were on the same page with each other about the Church's

needlessly overreaching powers and that lead to a point where both sides were waiting for each

other's fall. First Estate (also known as the Clergy) had a long-lasting authoritarian presence and

the idea of ‘organized religion' (which is the form of religion that is formally established and put

onto certain practices) was dominant throughout the late 18th century.49 The Church was the owner

of a lot of precious lands and had an enormous amount of wealth but also displayed great

corruptions and venality. These malpractices have caused various clergymen to lose their

reputation while also drawing reactions which have brought the Church to a point where they have

no trust or nobility in the eyes of most. They had critics even on the inside; the real clergymen who

were fed up with these problems abandoned the Church, sided with Third Estate and joined the

National Assembly. This situation was not a sign of Revolutionaries supporting atheism or rejecting

Catholicism itself; but an emergency call for a country where they could retain their beliefs without

any foreign control, corruption or exigence for all. The first action that the National Assembly took

was to disassemble seigneurialism into its parts and separate all of the feudal rights that the Church

owns.50 It was also the first steps of ‘laicité’ (secularism). Secularism is the separation between

religion and state institutions in order to create a space for religion to participate in, but not

dominate.51 This was vice versa before the Assembly and Christianity's dominance was over the

top. However, after the Assembly's separation, this problem was solved. The second step was to

establish a Committee where proper priests could inform and advise anyone concerned about

clerical as well as religious policies.

The second action that the Assembly took was to come into a consensus about the Church

yielding the majority of its wealth in order to lighten the national debt and in return, the Assembly

would ease the educational responsibility off of it. These were followed by nationalising all of the

49 "The Civil Constitution of the Clergy." French Revolution. June 16, 2018. Accessed March, 2019. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/civil-constitution-of-the-clergy/.50 "Decree of the National Assembly Abolishing the Feudal System, 11 August 1789." Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/281.51 Ibid

19

Church-owned lands and transforming them into ‘national goods’.52 The lands were then auctioned

off to pay off the national debt. However, one condition that they had was to make the sales via

banknote shaped papers called ‘assignats’ which could be exchanged for coins. This auction and

circulation of assignats have created a de facto currency which became the real currency as the

paper notes from September 1790.53

After these two significant reforms, on 12th of July 1790, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy was

finally passed by the National Assembly. Besides territorial and financial changes, this constitution

also standardized parish sizes which are the territories that are under the control of priests

accordingly to their number of residents. The priest and bishop salaries were regulated as well, and

their selection criteria have become the jurisdiction of the local assembly whose members did not

have to belong to Catholicism.54

Figure 4. An 2,000 Franc Assignat55

As a continuation of controversies, the Constitution also required bishops to vow on an ‘Oath of

Loyalty' since the original clerical oath was very bonding to the former customs of the Church. The

form of previous oath, which was made in the name and for the sake of King Louis XVI, had only

included loyalty to the King. The new one made it necessary to express the following words:

52 "The French Revolution and the Catholic Church." History Today. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.historytoday.com/archive/french-revolution-and-catholic-church.53 Levasseur, E. "The Assignats: A Study in the Finances of the French Revolution." Journal of Political Economy 2, no. 2 (1894): 179-202. doi:10.1086/250201.54 "The Civil Constitution of the Clergy." French Revolution. June 16, 2018. Accessed March, 2019. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/civil-constitution-of-the-clergy/.55 Netcomposant. "Banknotes Assignats Assignat. 2 000 Francs. 18 Nivôse an 3. Signature : Gomez." Poinsignon Numismatique. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.poinsignon-numismatique.com/banknotes_r1/assignats_c4555/2-000-francs_p5394/assignat-2-000-francs-18-nivose-an-3-signature-gomez_article_37368.html.

20

Church-owned lands and transforming them into ‘national goods’.52 The lands were then auctioned

off to pay off the national debt. However, one condition that they had was to make the sales via

banknote shaped papers called ‘assignats’ which could be exchanged for coins. This auction and

circulation of assignats have created a de facto currency which became the real currency as the

paper notes from September 1790.53

After these two significant reforms, on 12th of July 1790, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy was

finally passed by the National Assembly. Besides territorial and financial changes, this constitution

also standardized parish sizes which are the territories that are under the control of priests

accordingly to their number of residents. The priest and bishop salaries were regulated as well, and

their selection criteria have become the jurisdiction of the local assembly whose members did not

have to belong to Catholicism.54

Figure 4. An 2,000 Franc Assignat55

As a continuation of controversies, the Constitution also required bishops to vow on an ‘Oath of

Loyalty' since the original clerical oath was very bonding to the former customs of the Church. The

form of previous oath, which was made in the name and for the sake of King Louis XVI, had only

included loyalty to the King. The new one made it necessary to express the following words:

52 "The French Revolution and the Catholic Church." History Today. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.historytoday.com/archive/french-revolution-and-catholic-church.53 Levasseur, E. "The Assignats: A Study in the Finances of the French Revolution." Journal of Political Economy 2, no. 2 (1894): 179-202. doi:10.1086/250201.54 "The Civil Constitution of the Clergy." French Revolution. June 16, 2018. Accessed March, 2019. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/civil-constitution-of-the-clergy/.55 Netcomposant. "Banknotes Assignats Assignat. 2 000 Francs. 18 Nivôse an 3. Signature : Gomez." Poinsignon Numismatique. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.poinsignon-numismatique.com/banknotes_r1/assignats_c4555/2-000-francs_p5394/assignat-2-000-francs-18-nivose-an-3-signature-gomez_article_37368.html.

“loyalty to the nation, the law and the king” and “to support with all his power the constitution

decreed by the National Assembly”.56 The Assembly made this Loyalty Oath mandatory for all the

members of First Estate, including curates, monks, nuns etc. But not surprisingly, this has divided

the National Assembly itself into two sides. One side was very enthusiastic about this new oath

and the other side was stating that these conditions of loyalty to the Assembly were creating a clash

against obedience to God and the Pope. The second side stated that they would boycott the

Constitution unless the Pope clarifies and allows the oath.57 Of course, this division was followed

by another division amongst the Priests and at the end only %60 of them had vowed the oath in

January 1791. In the end, the vowed clergy was named ‘juring priests’ and the not-vowed ones

were called ‘non-juring priests’. The non-jurings were removed from their positions.58

Although the main aim of the Constitution was to decrease and lighten the grievances caused by

the Church at the beginning, the outcomes were far from what was intended. Rather than being an

effective paper, it has pitted Religion and the Revolution against each other in a way which was

very controversial, filled with tacitly political clauses. That has led to a France with two separate

Catholic Churches although Assembly has intended to combine everything and create a national

religion rather than an organizational one. The situation has gotten worse with the Pope's rejection

to of the Constitution, and estranged religious French citizens.59

In addition to all these, the defeated King Louis XVI who has bent his knee to all the political

reforms of the Revolution was also strictly against the Constitution due to its harms to the

immortality of his legacy. Eventually, these adverse situations have made it even harder for the

Assembly to regulate the new regime and become a crack for counter-revolutionary reactions to

leak through.60

B) The Establishment of National Convention (20 September 1792)

i. Leading Events

After the Establishment of the National Convention in 1791, pro-revolutionary French

citizens have realised their power of changing and shaping their way through the order they long

56 Dean, Rodney J. "L’Assemblée Constituante Et La Réforme Ecclésiastique,." H-France Review 15, no. 96. https://www.h-france.net/vol15reviews/vol15no96fitzsimmons.pdf.57 Andress, David. The Oxford Handbook of the French Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 201558 Ibid.59 Kolla, Edward James. "The Union of Avignon and the Challenges of Self-Determination." Sovereignty, International Law, and the French Revolution: 84-120. doi:10.1017/9781316832240.003.60 Ibid.

21

for. However, the situation was just more than rebellion, and various external effects were waiting

to turn the faith of the Revolution. During the year of 1792, some of the European Monarchs were

too afraid of a possible spread of this fervidness to their countries and this caution naturally created

coalitions between them.61 They hoped to restore Monarchy and smooth down the effects of

Revolutionary acts. Eventually, the first coalition between Austria, Prussia, Great Britain and Spain

versus France has led to a possibility of war. France was in favour of going into a war, but the

intentions of this approach were different between the public and Louis XVI himself. The wounded

Monarchy wanted the war because they thought the current government would be thwarted easily

due to its newly formed nature and this could create a ground for going back to the old regime.62

Meanwhile, Revolutionaries have favoured the possibility because it could be a chance to coalesce

the country finally and could play an instrumental role in spreading their ideas to other monarchies.

Eventually, on 20th of April 1792, the Assembly declared war on Austria-Prussia.

This war was the first one of the Revolutionary Wars, which was a series of three more

wars that were going to be acted by three other Coalitions in the following years.63 Although the

French army demonstrated great performance in the first two months, the success has begun to

decrease gradually afterwards. With the negative economic effects of substantial restrictions on the

market and increasing inflation, topped by mass disorganisations, the French army had to defect

from the field. This situation concluded with Revolutionaries to lose their last piece of faith that

had for the Monarchy. This loss exacerbated when King Louis XVI has threatened the Assembly

with his veto for the efforts of ‘fédérés’ (soldiers coming across France) to help the war. He used

the same threats when the National Assembly has decided to deport all the priests that rejected to

swear on the Civil Constitution. He also dismissed Girondin ministers who and formed a new

cabinet with a lot of ‘feuillants’ who are constitutional monarchists.64

The tension has raised in rank with the Demonstrations of June 1792. On the first

anniversary of the Tennis Court Oath, Revolutionaries have gathered in the same place and decided

to march towards National Assembly so that they could present their concerns to the King, but this

‘peacefully’ intended demonstration has taken an armed turn as people started to carry swords and

61 Isoni, Alessandro. "‘Fonder La République’. The French National Convention and the Revolutionary Government (1793–94)." Parliaments, Estates and Representation 34, no. 1 (2014): 40-54. doi:10.1080/02606755.2014.893715.62 Ibid.63 Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon." Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18, no. 4 (1988): 771. doi:10.2307/204824.64 Ibid.

22

for. However, the situation was just more than rebellion, and various external effects were waiting

to turn the faith of the Revolution. During the year of 1792, some of the European Monarchs were

too afraid of a possible spread of this fervidness to their countries and this caution naturally created

coalitions between them.61 They hoped to restore Monarchy and smooth down the effects of

Revolutionary acts. Eventually, the first coalition between Austria, Prussia, Great Britain and Spain

versus France has led to a possibility of war. France was in favour of going into a war, but the

intentions of this approach were different between the public and Louis XVI himself. The wounded

Monarchy wanted the war because they thought the current government would be thwarted easily

due to its newly formed nature and this could create a ground for going back to the old regime.62

Meanwhile, Revolutionaries have favoured the possibility because it could be a chance to coalesce

the country finally and could play an instrumental role in spreading their ideas to other monarchies.

Eventually, on 20th of April 1792, the Assembly declared war on Austria-Prussia.

This war was the first one of the Revolutionary Wars, which was a series of three more

wars that were going to be acted by three other Coalitions in the following years.63 Although the

French army demonstrated great performance in the first two months, the success has begun to

decrease gradually afterwards. With the negative economic effects of substantial restrictions on the

market and increasing inflation, topped by mass disorganisations, the French army had to defect

from the field. This situation concluded with Revolutionaries to lose their last piece of faith that

had for the Monarchy. This loss exacerbated when King Louis XVI has threatened the Assembly

with his veto for the efforts of ‘fédérés’ (soldiers coming across France) to help the war. He used

the same threats when the National Assembly has decided to deport all the priests that rejected to

swear on the Civil Constitution. He also dismissed Girondin ministers who and formed a new

cabinet with a lot of ‘feuillants’ who are constitutional monarchists.64

The tension has raised in rank with the Demonstrations of June 1792. On the first

anniversary of the Tennis Court Oath, Revolutionaries have gathered in the same place and decided

to march towards National Assembly so that they could present their concerns to the King, but this

‘peacefully’ intended demonstration has taken an armed turn as people started to carry swords and

61 Isoni, Alessandro. "‘Fonder La République’. The French National Convention and the Revolutionary Government (1793–94)." Parliaments, Estates and Representation 34, no. 1 (2014): 40-54. doi:10.1080/02606755.2014.893715.62 Ibid.63 Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon." Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18, no. 4 (1988): 771. doi:10.2307/204824.64 Ibid.

cudgels with them. They also had their well-known manifesto ‘La Patrie en Danger’ (Homeland is

in Danger) during this gathering.

“Interior agitation increases the difficulty of our position; our enemies indulge in foolish hopes which are an outrage against you. Make haste, citizens, save liberty and avenge your glory. The National Assembly declares that the homeland is in danger… You swore the oath to live freely or to die. We know that you will keep it, and it swears to be an example to you in this.”65

When they managed to enter the Assembly hall, the first thing they majorly criticised was

King’s despotic actions which were followed by their march to his

residence. When the crowd finally met him, he unbendingly stood

against to all of the presented demands; especially the ones that

pass the legislation concerning nonjuring priests as well as the

fédérés. After long and inconclusive debates, Revolutionaries

have walked out his door with only one thought: their next action

wasn’t going to be this settled and he, King Louis XVI, had to be

removed. As First Coalition War goes on, suspicions of a possible

unfaithful correspondence between King Louis and Austria-

Prussia have increased amongst the French Public.66 One

upcoming manifesto was about to be the last piece of a great rage

which will justify everything that Revolutionaries will attempt. Figure 5. Duke of Brunswick67

On 25th of July 1792, The Brunswick Manifesto was declared by The Duke of Brunswick,

Commanding General of the Austrian-Prussian Army and distributed throughout France. The

Manifesto has stated that if, King Lois XVI and Royal Family were unharmed then his armies

would refrain from looting and the lives of French citizens would be forgiven. He also mentioned

that in any contrary situation to his requests, they were ready to demolish the country for revenge.68

65 Dwyer, Philip G., and Peter McPhee. The French Revolution and Napoleon: A Sourcebook. London: Routledge, 2006.66 "Historical Milestone: The Execution of Louis XVI." Origins. Accessed March, 2019. http://origins.osu.edu/milestones/january-2018-execution-louis-xvi.67 "Duke of Brunswick." French Revolution. June 11, 2018. Accessed March, 2019. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/duke-of-brunswick/.68Barton, H. A. "The Origins of the Brunswick Manifesto." French Historical Studies 5, no. 2 (1967): 146. doi:10.2307/286173.

23

Although these words were intended to frighten the public, not surprisingly it has created a great

reaction and anger towards the King since abovementioned threats were explicitly confirming a

possible correspondence between Louis and enemies. The violence has acted as an alliance call for

the arms and eventually led to victory on 20th of September 1792.69 This renascence has let

Revolutionarists to take a braver step towards what they have all been waiting for. Moreover, made

one man to distinguish himself in the history for the first time: Maximilien Robespierre.70 The

effects of political stances and groups will be further mentioned.

On August of 1792, Revolutionarists have targeted the Tuileries Palace to take one final

step to demolish the most prominent entanglement between them and their freedom: a ‘King’. The

Palace was the official residence of Louis XVI and also where the sessions of National Assembly

were held. Although he tried to keep flaunting, it was already a degrading issue that he had to move

from the grandeur of Versailles to Tuileries.71 He nearly lacked all of the standard responsibilities

as a King and only lived there to preserve his name- but still just like a prisoner. The footsteps of

rising anti-royalism were no surprise, but he was not expecting a peak point this close due to the

success that the French army was still maintaining on the War.

69 Gilbert, Adrian. "Battle of Valmy." Encyclopædia Britannica. September 13, 2018. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Valmy.70 Maximilien Robespierre, Master of the Terror. Accessed March, 2019. http://people.loyno.edu/~history/journal/1983-4/mcletchie.htm.71 "Louis XVI's Flight from Paris." History Today. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.historytoday.com/archive/months-past/louis-xvis-flight-paris.

24

Although these words were intended to frighten the public, not surprisingly it has created a great

reaction and anger towards the King since abovementioned threats were explicitly confirming a

possible correspondence between Louis and enemies. The violence has acted as an alliance call for

the arms and eventually led to victory on 20th of September 1792.69 This renascence has let

Revolutionarists to take a braver step towards what they have all been waiting for. Moreover, made

one man to distinguish himself in the history for the first time: Maximilien Robespierre.70 The

effects of political stances and groups will be further mentioned.

On August of 1792, Revolutionarists have targeted the Tuileries Palace to take one final

step to demolish the most prominent entanglement between them and their freedom: a ‘King’. The

Palace was the official residence of Louis XVI and also where the sessions of National Assembly

were held. Although he tried to keep flaunting, it was already a degrading issue that he had to move

from the grandeur of Versailles to Tuileries.71 He nearly lacked all of the standard responsibilities

as a King and only lived there to preserve his name- but still just like a prisoner. The footsteps of

rising anti-royalism were no surprise, but he was not expecting a peak point this close due to the

success that the French army was still maintaining on the War.

69 Gilbert, Adrian. "Battle of Valmy." Encyclopædia Britannica. September 13, 2018. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Valmy.70 Maximilien Robespierre, Master of the Terror. Accessed March, 2019. http://people.loyno.edu/~history/journal/1983-4/mcletchie.htm.71 "Louis XVI's Flight from Paris." History Today. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.historytoday.com/archive/months-past/louis-xvis-flight-paris.

Figure 6. Siege of the Tuileries72

Paris Commune was formed during the Insurrection of 1789 and aimed to serve primary

duties like the collection of taxes, public works as well as creating a place for ordinary Parisian

people to represent themselves. The majority of Commune was under the effect of bourgeoise

who were the members of, but on 9th of August 1792, with the leadership of Georges Danton and

Jacobin Maximilien Robespierre, it was reformed as ‘Insurrectionary Commune’. It was now

under the effect of the sans-culottes who define themselves as the members of poor classes and or

leaders of the proletarian class. This new Commune has been joined by numerous units of

Fédérés as well, and the duo has marched to the Tuileries. Although King’s place had to be

secured highly, the majority of the National Guard was not trustable, and they eventually fled.

King Louis XVI and his family tried to escape and sheltered in the hall of National Assembly but

the cries of ‘Vive la nation!’ was already out and clear.73

On the night of August, ten axe-wielding sans-culottes have killed and ‘butchered’

majority of King’s Guards. Remained parts of the body were fed to dogs, women corpses were

stuffed into killed Guard’s mouth etc. which demonstrated the preliminary actions of upcoming

years of Terror. By midday, deputies of Louis has received an ultimatum from the members of

72 "Siege of the Tuileries." Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/2721. 73 "1871: The Paris Commune." Libcom.org. Accessed March, 2019. https://libcom.org/history/1871-the-paris-commune.

25

Insurrection Commune that demands the abolition of monarchy and additionally, the separation

of the Assembly itself. Eventually, the demands have acceded. National Assembly has voted to

suspend the King and the Monarchy, also to replace him with five-person executive council.74

The King and his family were imprisoned and the National Assembly has voted itself to limbo to

get ready for handing its power to a new National Convention. The difference between active and

passive citizens was abolished and finally, the new Convention would be based on universal male

suffrage which meant that every male citizen who is above 25 had a right to vote.75

On the 25th of August, the National Assembly has also abolished all feudality, and

finally, the National Convention was established. However, the abandonment of Monarchy did

not happen as soon as the Convention was established. On September 2nd, Revolutionary crowds

entered Parisian prisons and executed nearly 1500 of the prisoners after the rumours of an

approaching invasion threat. This event was called ‘September Massacres' and represents a great

example of what Revolutionarists are capable of even in a situation of ‘rumour' when their

freedom is the case. Moreover, finally, on September 21st, 1792 National Convention abolished

Monarchy and established the French Republic.

ii. Trial and Execution of King Louis XVI

National Convention has served as the unicameral legislative and executive body of the

newly formed Republic. It also consisted of a total of 742 deputies from all social classes and six

ministers, selected by universal male suffrage for the first time in the history.76 This blended

nature of deputies has created a range of political beliefs, first parties being radical left ‘La

Montagne’ (Montagnards), relatively right-wing ‘Gironde’ (Girondins) and centrist ‘Marais’ (The

Plains).77

74 Unwin, Timothy. "Reviews." French Studies XLVIII, no. 4 (1994). doi:10.1093/fs/xlviii.4.472-b.75 Mcphee, Peter. "Electoral Democracy and Direct Democracy in France 1789-1851." European History Quarterly16, no. 1 (1986): 77-96. doi:10.1177/026569148601600104. 76 Linder, Doug. The Trials of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette (1792 & 1793): Bibliography and SelectedLinks. Accessed March, 2019. http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/louis/louisxvilinks.html.77 Alison, F. "Review. Le Groupe De Coppet. Actes Et Documents Du Deuxieme Colloque De Coppet, 10-13 Juillet 1974." French Studies 32, no. 1 (1978): 83. doi:10.1093/fs/32.1.83.

26

Insurrection Commune that demands the abolition of monarchy and additionally, the separation

of the Assembly itself. Eventually, the demands have acceded. National Assembly has voted to

suspend the King and the Monarchy, also to replace him with five-person executive council.74

The King and his family were imprisoned and the National Assembly has voted itself to limbo to

get ready for handing its power to a new National Convention. The difference between active and

passive citizens was abolished and finally, the new Convention would be based on universal male

suffrage which meant that every male citizen who is above 25 had a right to vote.75

On the 25th of August, the National Assembly has also abolished all feudality, and

finally, the National Convention was established. However, the abandonment of Monarchy did

not happen as soon as the Convention was established. On September 2nd, Revolutionary crowds

entered Parisian prisons and executed nearly 1500 of the prisoners after the rumours of an

approaching invasion threat. This event was called ‘September Massacres' and represents a great

example of what Revolutionarists are capable of even in a situation of ‘rumour' when their

freedom is the case. Moreover, finally, on September 21st, 1792 National Convention abolished

Monarchy and established the French Republic.

ii. Trial and Execution of King Louis XVI

National Convention has served as the unicameral legislative and executive body of the

newly formed Republic. It also consisted of a total of 742 deputies from all social classes and six

ministers, selected by universal male suffrage for the first time in the history.76 This blended

nature of deputies has created a range of political beliefs, first parties being radical left ‘La

Montagne’ (Montagnards), relatively right-wing ‘Gironde’ (Girondins) and centrist ‘Marais’ (The

Plains).77

74 Unwin, Timothy. "Reviews." French Studies XLVIII, no. 4 (1994). doi:10.1093/fs/xlviii.4.472-b.75 Mcphee, Peter. "Electoral Democracy and Direct Democracy in France 1789-1851." European History Quarterly16, no. 1 (1986): 77-96. doi:10.1177/026569148601600104. 76 Linder, Doug. The Trials of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette (1792 & 1793): Bibliography and SelectedLinks. Accessed March, 2019. http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/louis/louisxvilinks.html.77 Alison, F. "Review. Le Groupe De Coppet. Actes Et Documents Du Deuxieme Colloque De Coppet, 10-13 Juillet 1974." French Studies 32, no. 1 (1978): 83. doi:10.1093/fs/32.1.83.

Figure 7. National Convention78

Montagnards often conflicted with Girondins due to their difference of requests and visions

for the future of the Republic. While Montagnards were in favour of a total Monarchy elimination,

dechristianization and strict actions towards any threats to this new formation; liberal Girondins

were countering these requests. They also occupied the majority of the ministerial positions.

Although leftists were also supportive of the abolition of Monarchy, they were less enthusiastic

about the advancement of Revolution as well as the aggressive foreign policy that Montagnards

were trying to implement. This clash has dominated the first year of the Convention from 1792 to

1793.79

Centrist Maraisards had no or so little influence over the Convention due to the great power

clash between the two major parties. They did not commit any distinctive ideology either.

Abovementioned clashes have created a highly chaotic atmosphere in the Convention Hall with

various accusations of treasons as well as reckless executions. One of the most important outcomes

of this culminating tension was that it concluded with the polarization of Convention, another great

actor for Terror to reach its peak point in minimal time. The most significant and primary aim of

National Convention was to create a brand new constitution that will define and order the

78 "The Hall of the Convention." Educational Technology Clearinghouse. Accessed March, 2019. https://etc.usf.edu/clipart/80000/80079/80079_convention.htm. 79 Davidson, Ian. The French Revolution: From Enlightenment to Tyranny. New York: Pegasus Books, 2018.

27

Revolution. To achieve this, the most prominent symbol of the former regime had to be

extinguished: King Louis XVI. What would happen to the King was already a question of curiosity

among deputies, but considering his insignificance, attempts of betrayal and fleeing, the answer to

this question was not hidden.

As Assembly agreed on his offenses, he was arrested and taken to a Temple for his

incarceration. The first action was to strip him from all of his noble titles, turning him from King

Louis XVI to citizen Louis Capet. However, although there was a massive rage towards him and

great anticipation for his execution, considerable legal advice was raised from the Convention

against this. Since National Convention did not create any new constitutions, as it was their primary

aim, they had to consider The Constitution of 1791. Moreover, according to what the document

says, no other punishments different from dethronement could be designated for him. This has led

to a great debate which will stall the execution for a whole one month, focusing on the question of

asking "Is Louis XVI ‘judgeable' for the crimes he is attributed to have committed on the

constitutional throne?"80

Old National Assembly Democrats who are also members of the new Convention hesitated

about a bloody execution considering what has happened in September Massacres and the potential

that Revolutionarists had. Such a violent event could lead Revolution astray into an unintended

point and increase ‘mob rule’ due to instinctively made decisions rather than using logic. Putting

Louis under the guillotine might also accelerate unrest as well as the possibility of terror all around

the country.81 Due to all stated reasons, Charles-François Morisson and Claude Fauchet kept

arguing that he could only be punished according to the rules from 1791. While some of the other

deputies were believing that putting him on trial could have a provocative and disruptive effect and

formation of a new Constitution was carrying higher importance at that time, there was one distinct

voice in the hall making contrary statements to all mild points. Maximilien Robespierre, sitting on

the side of Montagnards, who is the leading member of the Jacobin Club (a political club based on

the members of Paris Commune and sans-culottes) that no trial was necessary.82 Because according

to him French people have already decided upon his end with their reaction on August 10th. His

80 "King Louis XVI Executed." History.com. February 09, 2010. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/king-louis-xvi-executed.81 Ibid. 82 Higonnet, Patrice Louis-René, and Gordon Wright. "France." Encyclopædia Britannica. March, 2019. Accessed March 19, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/France/Girondins-and-Montagnards.

28

Revolution. To achieve this, the most prominent symbol of the former regime had to be

extinguished: King Louis XVI. What would happen to the King was already a question of curiosity

among deputies, but considering his insignificance, attempts of betrayal and fleeing, the answer to

this question was not hidden.

As Assembly agreed on his offenses, he was arrested and taken to a Temple for his

incarceration. The first action was to strip him from all of his noble titles, turning him from King

Louis XVI to citizen Louis Capet. However, although there was a massive rage towards him and

great anticipation for his execution, considerable legal advice was raised from the Convention

against this. Since National Convention did not create any new constitutions, as it was their primary

aim, they had to consider The Constitution of 1791. Moreover, according to what the document

says, no other punishments different from dethronement could be designated for him. This has led

to a great debate which will stall the execution for a whole one month, focusing on the question of

asking "Is Louis XVI ‘judgeable' for the crimes he is attributed to have committed on the

constitutional throne?"80

Old National Assembly Democrats who are also members of the new Convention hesitated

about a bloody execution considering what has happened in September Massacres and the potential

that Revolutionarists had. Such a violent event could lead Revolution astray into an unintended

point and increase ‘mob rule’ due to instinctively made decisions rather than using logic. Putting

Louis under the guillotine might also accelerate unrest as well as the possibility of terror all around

the country.81 Due to all stated reasons, Charles-François Morisson and Claude Fauchet kept

arguing that he could only be punished according to the rules from 1791. While some of the other

deputies were believing that putting him on trial could have a provocative and disruptive effect and

formation of a new Constitution was carrying higher importance at that time, there was one distinct

voice in the hall making contrary statements to all mild points. Maximilien Robespierre, sitting on

the side of Montagnards, who is the leading member of the Jacobin Club (a political club based on

the members of Paris Commune and sans-culottes) that no trial was necessary.82 Because according

to him French people have already decided upon his end with their reaction on August 10th. His

80 "King Louis XVI Executed." History.com. February 09, 2010. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/king-louis-xvi-executed.81 Ibid. 82 Higonnet, Patrice Louis-René, and Gordon Wright. "France." Encyclopædia Britannica. March, 2019. Accessed March 19, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/France/Girondins-and-Montagnards.

voice has led the majority of the deputies, and they agreed upon the trial of Louis. Since there were

no legal facilities that could carry the duties of a court, although it is highly controversial,

Convention itself would act as a court. However, this decision was open to many irregular and

uncertain legal outcomes.

The trial began on 11th of December 1792 as the best lawyers of the country have defended

their King in spite of all the possible dangers to their lives and careers. Their primary argument

was, what Louis only did was to fulfil his duty as a King and Convention did not need one more

open sign to emphasise the fall of Monarchy. One month passed with heated debates, and his

lawyers have demonstrated a high performance against all the accusations of broken oaths, military

failures etc. However, the situation was stable, and deputies had a biased approach to the trial due

to their lack of competence.83

To get an in-depth understanding of the upcoming issues, it is essential to analyse the

political climate of the National Convention. During the debates, Jacobin deputies have strongly

favoured the death penalty while Girondins profoundly feared from a possible horror outgrowth

for the future of newly formed Republic. Even they lobbied and proposed for an appel au peuple

(appeal to the people) which will enable a national referendum to decide upon King’s execution.

Finally, this separation on stances has rocketed with a snowball effect between nationalist

Girondins and Paris-centric Jacobins- especially with the increasing influence of Maximilien

Robespierre and his club on the Convention. On January 17th, 1792 King’s fate was concluded,

and 387 to 334 deputies have favoured the execution.84

Just after 4 days, on the 21st of January he saw his wife Marie Antoinette and children for

the last time; also received mass from a nonjuring priest. He was taken to the guillotine which is

located in Place de la Révolution with a carriage, through streets filled with sans-culottes and

soldiers. , and his last words were: ‘‘I forgive my enemies. I trust that my death will be for the

happiness of my people, but I grieve for France and I fear she may suffer the anger of the Lord.’’85

His head was thrown to a 15 feet deep pit.

83 The trial of Louis XVI. Late King of France; by the National Convention, at Several Adjourned Sittings. Translated from the French. Accessed March, 2019. https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/evans/N19556.0001.001/1:3?rgn=div1;view. 84 Ibid.85 Mantin, Peter. The French Revolution. Oxford: Heinemann Library, 1994.

29

Figure 8. Execution of Louis XVI86

Execution news of Louis King XVI has shocked Europe, all of the dominant countries have

condemned this violent decision and the fall of Monarchy. Especially the countries of First

Coalition, Britain-Austria-Prussia trio have expelled their ambassadors from France and decided

to escalate their military action against new order in France. Also, the official British press has

described the execution as a needless act of regicide. After these reactions, the National Convention

has found the solution in declaring war on England. After all, this execution was not only the end

of one life but also an end to an oppressive regime which let Revolutionarists free both symbolically

and legally.87

iii. Committees

a. Committee of Public Safety (COPS)

The Committee of Public Safety could be considered as the first powerful committee of the

Revolution. There were also other committees established for the purpose of dealing with different

kinds of issues such as security or potential threats in the past. For example, the former version of

National Convention Legislative Assembly had the ‘Comitées de Surveillance’ (‘Committee of

86 "Execution of Marie Antoinette (16 October 1793) at the Place De La Révolution." Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/2827.87 Ibid.

30

Figure 8. Execution of Louis XVI86

Execution news of Louis King XVI has shocked Europe, all of the dominant countries have

condemned this violent decision and the fall of Monarchy. Especially the countries of First

Coalition, Britain-Austria-Prussia trio have expelled their ambassadors from France and decided

to escalate their military action against new order in France. Also, the official British press has

described the execution as a needless act of regicide. After these reactions, the National Convention

has found the solution in declaring war on England. After all, this execution was not only the end

of one life but also an end to an oppressive regime which let Revolutionarists free both symbolically

and legally.87

iii. Committees

a. Committee of Public Safety (COPS)

The Committee of Public Safety could be considered as the first powerful committee of the

Revolution. There were also other committees established for the purpose of dealing with different

kinds of issues such as security or potential threats in the past. For example, the former version of

National Convention Legislative Assembly had the ‘Comitées de Surveillance’ (‘Committee of

86 "Execution of Marie Antoinette (16 October 1793) at the Place De La Révolution." Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/2827.87 Ibid.

Surveillance’) etc.88 Main aim all these committees were to secure the wellbeing of the new order.

Committee of Public Safety established in 1793 when there was a lack of executive power in the

Convention after the trial of Louis XVI. However, this gap had to be filled since counter-

revolutionaries voices started to grow from Vendée an a stronger leadership became a necessity.

The major event which led to the establishment took place in April 1793. The former foreign

minister and best French military commander Charles Dumouriez was exposed from negotiating

with enemy Austrians as well as organising a counter-revolutionary force to seize control of the

Capital. With this truth, Girondinist deputies who have been following Dumouriez lost the

reputation and trust, and with the urging of Danton Committee of Public Safety was created by the

National Convention.89

Primary roles of COPS was receiving and monitoring intelligence, dealing with the daily

business of the war and giving weekly reports to Convention. It was authorised to act ‘behalf' of

the Convention, and its decisions might be interfered by the National Convention. Deputies had

the right to overrule COPS' decisions or remove its members. COPS had its autonomy,

responsibilities and confidentiality as no one could saw their meetings or attend to it. The

Committee also could make decisions without taking the second-thought from the Convention.90

At first, there were an equal amount of moderates and radicals in the committee as being 3

to 3. All members worked collaboratively and for the same purpose in its first weeks; their

assumptions turned out to be accurate which also rocketed their trustworthiness up. Convention

decided to put more trust into it.91

On 27th of July, 1793 Maximilien Robespierre was selected to the COPS and brought his

authoritarianism. He later became the leader and in the following year, with the endorsement of

Convention number of members increased to 12 - which made the group be also known as the

‘Twelve who Ruled'. Eight out of twelve members were lawyers, and foremost duty of the

Committee became to be preparing responses to military threats, public insurrections and economic

problems. Moreover, COP had an allocation system which allocated each member to a different

88 Hanson, Paul R. A to Z of the French Revolution. Scarecrow Press, 2007.89 Palmer, R. R. "Fifty Years of the Committee of Public Safety." The Journal of Modern History 13, no. 3 (1941): 375-97. doi:10.1086/236544.90 Ibid.91 Ibid.

31

aspect that should be considered while making decisions. For example, Robespierre was in charge

of policing and religion while Saint-Just & Carnot dealt with planning and military strategy.92

Figure 9. Inside of Committee of Public Safety (COPS)93

On September 1793, Committee of Public Safety was granted further powers as well as

responsibilities. On the 14th of September, COPS had the ability to appoint duties to other

committees and officially was an executive power. With the approval of the Law of Maximum, the

Committee found the courage to act in a more interventionist way and deal with war policy

followed by matters of national security. With the flow of events and decisions, it also had the

power to dispatch its enemies such as Marie Antoinette or Jacques Brissot or establishing new

armies for France. On 4th of December, Convention confirmed COPS's authority by passing Law

of 14 Frimaire which was the first constitution of the Revolutionary government and became de

facto executive power.94 (also saw National Convention as “sole centre of government initiative”)

92 "History - Historic Figures: Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794)." BBC. Accessed March, 2019. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/robespierre_maximilien.shtml.93 James, Clive, Treble Zanda, Lan Bui, Pattie Reddy, Nicole Bossert-Desotell, and Rachel Hammitt. "Committee Of Public Safety Art Print by Granger." Fine Art America. March, 2019. Accessed March 19, 2019. https://fineartamerica.com/featured/committee-of-public-safety-granger.html?product=art-print.94 Palmer, R. R. "Fifty Years of the Committee of Public Safety." The Journal of Modern History 13, no. 3 (1941): 375-97. doi:10.1086/236544

32

aspect that should be considered while making decisions. For example, Robespierre was in charge

of policing and religion while Saint-Just & Carnot dealt with planning and military strategy.92

Figure 9. Inside of Committee of Public Safety (COPS)93

On September 1793, Committee of Public Safety was granted further powers as well as

responsibilities. On the 14th of September, COPS had the ability to appoint duties to other

committees and officially was an executive power. With the approval of the Law of Maximum, the

Committee found the courage to act in a more interventionist way and deal with war policy

followed by matters of national security. With the flow of events and decisions, it also had the

power to dispatch its enemies such as Marie Antoinette or Jacques Brissot or establishing new

armies for France. On 4th of December, Convention confirmed COPS's authority by passing Law

of 14 Frimaire which was the first constitution of the Revolutionary government and became de

facto executive power.94 (also saw National Convention as “sole centre of government initiative”)

92 "History - Historic Figures: Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794)." BBC. Accessed March, 2019. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/robespierre_maximilien.shtml.93 James, Clive, Treble Zanda, Lan Bui, Pattie Reddy, Nicole Bossert-Desotell, and Rachel Hammitt. "Committee Of Public Safety Art Print by Granger." Fine Art America. March, 2019. Accessed March 19, 2019. https://fineartamerica.com/featured/committee-of-public-safety-granger.html?product=art-print.94 Palmer, R. R. "Fifty Years of the Committee of Public Safety." The Journal of Modern History 13, no. 3 (1941): 375-97. doi:10.1086/236544

b. Committee of General Security (COGS)

The second committee established by the National Convention was the Committee of

General Security (COGS). It was officially the police committee of the Convention and had

prominent members such as Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier and Jean-Pierre-André Amar. Most of

the counter-revolutionaries suspects were delivered to the trials by COGS since it acted as the

police committee of the country. Its primary purpose was to general surveillance security, the

prosecution of foreign agents and issuance of passports. All the control of surveillance groups

belonged to COGS, which also had 12 members in it.95 Other suspects were delivered to the

Tribunals by with COPS, National Convention or représentants en mission. Authorisation line

between the Committee of Public Safety and Committee of General Security is blurred. Due to this

situation, two committees mostly cannot come into a consensus regarding what is under whose

responsibility. Terms defining their powers are so similar, that’s why a further clarification is

needed.96

II) STANCES AND EVENTSA. Prominent Stances

i. Egalitarianism

Egalitarianism is the belief that all people are equal, whether it be in political, economic, or

social life. People who are non-egalitarian see certain people as having a higher status in society

because of things like wealth or material means. The construction and addition of civil rights, socio-

economic changes, and political changes are all outcomes of the French Revolution that revolve

around the idea of egalitarianism.97 The start of the French Revolution can be seen as an egalitarian

movement because the objective of the peasants was to abolish the class system and be seen as

equals and have equal representation in government. The revolution took the many privileges and

power that the nobles and aristocrats had. The three estate system was replaced with an egalitarian

95 Furet, Francois, Mona Ozouf, and Arthur Goldhammer. A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution.Cambridge (Massachusetts): Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1989.96 Dipadova, Theodore A. "The Girondins and the Question of Revolutionary Government." French Historical Studies 9, no. 3 (1976): 432. doi:10.2307/286230.97 Arneson, Richard. "Egalitarianism." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. April 24, 2013. Accessed March, 2019. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/egalitarianism/.

33

system where everyone was deemed equal and this change came with article 1 of the Declaration

of the Rights of Man which established all citizens as equals.98

The reign of Louis XVI and his wife Mary Antoinette can be characterized as leaving

France with millions of debt and its citizens even more impoverished and hungrier than they were

before. This shows how the monarchical system let kings and queens step all over the rights of its

citizens. This came to an end with article 2 of the Declaration and this article can also be referred

back to egalitarianism because it established that the equal rights of citizens could not be abused

by those in power, which even political officials are subject to the law. The guillotine can also be

seen as a symbol of egalitarianism as the contraption was used on all citizens, whether they were a

peasant, noble, or even the King.99

ii. Cult of Reason

The Cult of Reason was a new type of faith that was brought about during the French

Revolution in 1792. It was based on the idea of there not being a god and this new way of thinking

stemmed from the opposition against Christianity at the time. Those who believed in the Cult of

Reason wanted to establish a religion that wasn’t centred around gods but on reason alone. This

idea of the worship of reason was founded by Jacques Hebert and said that mankind, who possessed

reason, was capable of making their own laws. It was an effort to have people worship humankind

rather than god on the basis of rationality. This proposal took a flight of its own. Its believers started

to destroy churches and vandalise portraits of religious figures. Temples of Reason were

established on what used to be churches and in 1793 the Catholic mass was prohibited. Believers

also organised a Festival of Reason to expand the Cult of Reason to all of France. This festival

included acts like humiliating priests and letting loose pigs dressed like them in churches. So the

Cult of Reason added further to the destruction and mayhem going on at the time. It acts like

removing religious signs on graveyards and wrecking what used to be praying grounds, did not

help calm the already chaotic air. However, it can be argued that the Cult of Reason with its

festivals strengthened social bonds and brought together the French people throughout the

prevailing time of terror.100

98Ibid. 99 Ibid.100 Loflin, Lewis. "Cult of Reason and Robespierre." Cult of Reason and Robespierre. Accessed March 19, 2019. http://www.sullivan-county.com/identity/shanda.htm.

34

system where everyone was deemed equal and this change came with article 1 of the Declaration

of the Rights of Man which established all citizens as equals.98

The reign of Louis XVI and his wife Mary Antoinette can be characterized as leaving

France with millions of debt and its citizens even more impoverished and hungrier than they were

before. This shows how the monarchical system let kings and queens step all over the rights of its

citizens. This came to an end with article 2 of the Declaration and this article can also be referred

back to egalitarianism because it established that the equal rights of citizens could not be abused

by those in power, which even political officials are subject to the law. The guillotine can also be

seen as a symbol of egalitarianism as the contraption was used on all citizens, whether they were a

peasant, noble, or even the King.99

ii. Cult of Reason

The Cult of Reason was a new type of faith that was brought about during the French

Revolution in 1792. It was based on the idea of there not being a god and this new way of thinking

stemmed from the opposition against Christianity at the time. Those who believed in the Cult of

Reason wanted to establish a religion that wasn’t centred around gods but on reason alone. This

idea of the worship of reason was founded by Jacques Hebert and said that mankind, who possessed

reason, was capable of making their own laws. It was an effort to have people worship humankind

rather than god on the basis of rationality. This proposal took a flight of its own. Its believers started

to destroy churches and vandalise portraits of religious figures. Temples of Reason were

established on what used to be churches and in 1793 the Catholic mass was prohibited. Believers

also organised a Festival of Reason to expand the Cult of Reason to all of France. This festival

included acts like humiliating priests and letting loose pigs dressed like them in churches. So the

Cult of Reason added further to the destruction and mayhem going on at the time. It acts like

removing religious signs on graveyards and wrecking what used to be praying grounds, did not

help calm the already chaotic air. However, it can be argued that the Cult of Reason with its

festivals strengthened social bonds and brought together the French people throughout the

prevailing time of terror.100

98Ibid. 99 Ibid.100 Loflin, Lewis. "Cult of Reason and Robespierre." Cult of Reason and Robespierre. Accessed March 19, 2019. http://www.sullivan-county.com/identity/shanda.htm.

The Cult of Reason added to the weakening power of the church as it promoted a religion

without a god and began the start of a period of what we can call dechristianization. Those who did

not act accordingly could be sent to the guillotine. Also in 1793, a law was passed which seized all

the properties of the church and distributed it among the common people. The Cult of Reason,

however, came mostly to an end due to Maximilien Robespierre, when he introduced the Cult of

the Supreme Being.101 Robespierre deeply opposed the cult of reason because it did not instil the

values of morality and virtue to the public to which he deemed was necessary for an effective

government. So, he put forth the idea of a supreme being who created the world according to natural

laws but did not interfere with it. However, this belief also died down when Robespierre lost his

effectiveness.

The rise of the Jacobins

i. Junction with the Natural Convention

Jacobin Club, formerly known as the Club Breton, was first formed by radical deputies of

the Third Estate from Estates-General in 1789 at Versailles. It later reconstituted as Society of

Friends of the Constitution (Société des Amis de la Constitution), after National Assembly moved

to Paris. The name ‘Jacobins’ derived from the monastery where the club members met regularly.

The main aim of Jacobins was to preserve and maintain Revolution from mainly any ‘aristocratic’

action against it, meaning anything related to privileged higher class. Although only deputies of

the Assembly were accepted at first, the Club started to welcome non-deputies as well. Some of

these new members were also prosperous bourgeois, although contrary to their fundamental aim,

they have provided affiliations and network to Jacobins. However, the Club fell apart in July 1791

when Louis XVI has tried to run away from France. Many of the non-radical members have joined

the Feuillants party which was highly favouring constitutional Monarchy.102 Although they

disappeared from the National Convention after the fall of Monarchy in 1792, they still caused

Jacobins to spit over. There were only a couple of deputies remained, Maximilien Robespierre was

one of them.103

101 Ibid. 102 Rothman, Stanley, Maurice Duverger, Barbara North, and Robert North. "The French Political System." American Sociological Review 23, no. 5 (1958): 598. doi:10.2307/2088927.103 Ibid.

35

He increased his prominence and became the new leader. After August 1972, with his radical and

enthusiastic remarks during the trial, Jacobins club has become one of the major groups directing

the Revolution. Jacobins have evolved from being only a Club to a

more democratic phase with the acknowledgement of leftist

Montagnards to National Convention and its high responding to the

requests of the working class. Although there were nearly 5,000-

8,000 clubs throughout France, only some were powerful and acted

as the administrative extension of the Republic. Jacobins, as the

centre of public virtue, was involved in dechristianizing, and

suspecting counter opinions- which mainly paved the way to having

excessive power on the wellbeing and fate of the public.

Figure 10. Emblem of Jacobin Club104

ii. Montagnards vs Girondins

From the beginning to the end of the Revolution, there had been a great diversity between

politicians’ view on class, ideology, economics etc. This diversity has become evident especially

during the debates in the National Assembly. The terms, ‘left-wing’ and ‘right-wing’ were simply

the products of sitting positions of deputies: while most radical deputies used to sit to the left side

of President, more conservative ones used to sit to the right side. After the establishment of the

National Convention, these two wings have re-appropriated as ‘Montagnards’ and ‘Girondins’.105

Although this time, two parts were not as organised and disciplined as their former version,

they still could vote as blocks and unified to a certain extent. Considering the rapid shifts in

interparty memberships during 1792, this situation may be considered as natural. Right wing

Girondins have also formed their bloc during 1791, with the leadership of Jacques-Pierre Brissot,

who is also their main speaker and an essential figure in the Jacobin Club. His influence was so

huge that, after some time Girondists were also known as Brissotins among the public. Their

members were composed of various lawyers, philosophers, journalists; the part of the country who

104 "Jacobin Club Photos and Images." Jacobin Club Photos and Images | Age Fotostock. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.agefotostock.com/age/en/Stock-Images/jacobin-club.html. 105 "The Girondins and Montagnards." French Revolution. June 01, 2018. Accessed March, 2019. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/girondins-and-montagnards/.

36

He increased his prominence and became the new leader. After August 1972, with his radical and

enthusiastic remarks during the trial, Jacobins club has become one of the major groups directing

the Revolution. Jacobins have evolved from being only a Club to a

more democratic phase with the acknowledgement of leftist

Montagnards to National Convention and its high responding to the

requests of the working class. Although there were nearly 5,000-

8,000 clubs throughout France, only some were powerful and acted

as the administrative extension of the Republic. Jacobins, as the

centre of public virtue, was involved in dechristianizing, and

suspecting counter opinions- which mainly paved the way to having

excessive power on the wellbeing and fate of the public.

Figure 10. Emblem of Jacobin Club104

ii. Montagnards vs Girondins

From the beginning to the end of the Revolution, there had been a great diversity between

politicians’ view on class, ideology, economics etc. This diversity has become evident especially

during the debates in the National Assembly. The terms, ‘left-wing’ and ‘right-wing’ were simply

the products of sitting positions of deputies: while most radical deputies used to sit to the left side

of President, more conservative ones used to sit to the right side. After the establishment of the

National Convention, these two wings have re-appropriated as ‘Montagnards’ and ‘Girondins’.105

Although this time, two parts were not as organised and disciplined as their former version,

they still could vote as blocks and unified to a certain extent. Considering the rapid shifts in

interparty memberships during 1792, this situation may be considered as natural. Right wing

Girondins have also formed their bloc during 1791, with the leadership of Jacques-Pierre Brissot,

who is also their main speaker and an essential figure in the Jacobin Club. His influence was so

huge that, after some time Girondists were also known as Brissotins among the public. Their

members were composed of various lawyers, philosophers, journalists; the part of the country who

104 "Jacobin Club Photos and Images." Jacobin Club Photos and Images | Age Fotostock. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.agefotostock.com/age/en/Stock-Images/jacobin-club.html. 105 "The Girondins and Montagnards." French Revolution. June 01, 2018. Accessed March, 2019. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/girondins-and-montagnards/.

can be considered as ‘high-profiled citizens’.106 Some of the most important members were Jean-

Marie Roland who is a scientist later became a politician, his wife Madame Roland, politician and

philosopher the Marquis de Condorcet, and Jérôme Pétion. They even met regularly in Roland’s

house to discuss their future policies as well as actions. The lack of distinctiveness between two

blocs ended after the Insurrection of 10th of August, as Montagnards took control over Jacobin

club and Paris Commune- eventually becoming stronger. The word ‘Montagnard’ (Men of

Mountain) is referred to deputies who occupied higher benches in the Convention and also in the

Jacobin Club.107

Although this time, two parts were not as organised and

disciplined as their former version, they still could vote

as blocks and unified to a certain extent. Considering the

rapid shifts in interparty memberships during 1792, this

situation may be considered as natural.108 Right wing

Girondinists have also formed their bloc during 1791,

with the leadership of Jacques-Pierre Brissot, who is also

their main speaker and an essential figure in the Jacobin

Club. His influence was so huge that, after some time

Girondists were also known as Brissotins among the

public. Their members were composed of various

lawyers, philosophers, journalists; basically the part of

the country who can be considered as ‘high-profiled

citizens'. Some of the most important members were

Figure 11. Poster of Montagnards109 Jean-Marie Roland who is a scientist later became a

politician, his wife Madame Roland, politician and philosopher the Marquis de Condorcet, and

Jérôme Pétion. They even met regularly in Roland’s house to discuss their future policies as

106 Higgonet, Patrice. "The Social and Cultural Antecedents of Revolutionary Discontinuity: Montagnards and Girondins." The English Historical Review C, no. CCCXCVI (1985): 513-44. doi:10.1093/ehr/c.cccxcvi.513.107 Ibid. 108 "The Girondins and Montagnards." French Revolution. June 01, 2018. Accessed March, 2019. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/girondins-and-montagnards/.109 Béricourt, and Dessinateur. "Vive La Montagne ; Vive La République Une Et Indivisible : [dessin] / [Béricourt]." Gallica. January 01, 1793. Accessed March, 2019. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b84121521.item.

37

well as actions.110 The lack of distinctiveness between two blocs ended after the Insurrection of

10th of August, as Montagnards took control over Jacobin club and Paris Commune- eventually

becoming stronger. The word ‘Montagnard’ (Men of Mountain) is referred to deputies who

occupied higher benches in the Convention and also in the Jacobin Club.111

While Men of Mountain were increasing their influence day by day within the National

Convention, Girondins nearly had 200 deputies (only 69 were active) and always effortfully

acting intellectual and cautious. They eventually became the ‘moderate Republicans’ of the hall,

wanted a genuinely national government with deputies that represents all citizens- not just

Parisians while Montagnards drew much of their support from Paris; having 21 out of 24 Parisian

deputies in their bloc.112 The ideal French society of Girondins was capitalist, meritocratic with

personal liberty and most importantly, lived by the rule of law. They profoundly distrusted the

radicalism of Montagnards, the concept of Commune and sans-culottes. They were

“disorganisers who want everything levelled” according to Brissot.113

This conflict between two blocs has escalated during the trial and execution of King Louis

XVI. After the final decision of execution, as it was also mentioned in the related part above,

Girondins have proposed a referendum, an appel au people (‘appeal to the people’) because they

thought the decision was not a comprehensive outcome of all nation’s thoughts but only a

fraction of Parisian deputies’ discussions. With the rejection of this suggestion by the majority of

Convention, Girondin authority was majorly undermined and the attempt was even perceived as a

‘royalist plot to save King's life'. All in all, considering the roughness of Montagnards and

mansuetude of Girondins, the increasing tension between two blocs was ready to bring more

significant and brutal consequences for the future.

a. Bourgeoisie

Class of Bourgeoisie (means middle-class in French) wasn’t prominent during the

Revolution and what they did for the time was only taking part in what was happening around

them. They were a legal category in a society defined by their social setting. Before this, there

110 Luna, Frederick A. De. "The "Girondins" Were Girondins, after All." French Historical Studies 15, no. 3 (1988): 506. doi:10.2307/286372.111 Ibid.112 Ibid. 113 "David P.Jordan. The Kings Trial: The French Revolution vs. Louis XVI. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1979." The American Historical Review, 1980. doi:10.1086/ahr/85.5.1204-a.

38

well as actions.110 The lack of distinctiveness between two blocs ended after the Insurrection of

10th of August, as Montagnards took control over Jacobin club and Paris Commune- eventually

becoming stronger. The word ‘Montagnard’ (Men of Mountain) is referred to deputies who

occupied higher benches in the Convention and also in the Jacobin Club.111

While Men of Mountain were increasing their influence day by day within the National

Convention, Girondins nearly had 200 deputies (only 69 were active) and always effortfully

acting intellectual and cautious. They eventually became the ‘moderate Republicans’ of the hall,

wanted a genuinely national government with deputies that represents all citizens- not just

Parisians while Montagnards drew much of their support from Paris; having 21 out of 24 Parisian

deputies in their bloc.112 The ideal French society of Girondins was capitalist, meritocratic with

personal liberty and most importantly, lived by the rule of law. They profoundly distrusted the

radicalism of Montagnards, the concept of Commune and sans-culottes. They were

“disorganisers who want everything levelled” according to Brissot.113

This conflict between two blocs has escalated during the trial and execution of King Louis

XVI. After the final decision of execution, as it was also mentioned in the related part above,

Girondins have proposed a referendum, an appel au people (‘appeal to the people’) because they

thought the decision was not a comprehensive outcome of all nation’s thoughts but only a

fraction of Parisian deputies’ discussions. With the rejection of this suggestion by the majority of

Convention, Girondin authority was majorly undermined and the attempt was even perceived as a

‘royalist plot to save King's life'. All in all, considering the roughness of Montagnards and

mansuetude of Girondins, the increasing tension between two blocs was ready to bring more

significant and brutal consequences for the future.

a. Bourgeoisie

Class of Bourgeoisie (means middle-class in French) wasn’t prominent during the

Revolution and what they did for the time was only taking part in what was happening around

them. They were a legal category in a society defined by their social setting. Before this, there

110 Luna, Frederick A. De. "The "Girondins" Were Girondins, after All." French Historical Studies 15, no. 3 (1988): 506. doi:10.2307/286372.111 Ibid.112 Ibid. 113 "David P.Jordan. The Kings Trial: The French Revolution vs. Louis XVI. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1979." The American Historical Review, 1980. doi:10.1086/ahr/85.5.1204-a.

were three types of Bourgeoisie as the low, the high and the moral. Although the last two seem to

be very similar to each other, they were not.

Bourgeoisie could not be identified as a loyal noble but aristocrats who were filling under

the word that they are defined with correctly. Mostly, municipal magistrates and other city

officials were chosen from this layer.114 It was a fairly large class of people that contained

academics, health officials, some priests and talented artists. For examples of good Bourgeoisie,

we could give the names of Voltaire, Hélvetius, Buffon, de Troyes etc. The small ones are just in

the middle, such as lower clergy, merchants, clerks, writers etc. Moreover, the Revolution mostly

affected this part since they constituted 1/3 of the guards.115

b. Jacques Hébert and Sans-Culottes

Jacques Hébert, French journalist and revolutionarist was born in 1757 and he became one

of the most important names of the French Revolution with his leadership skills. His family was

bourgeoisie but lived in poverty in more than a decade. He made his big break when Revolution

outbroke, he started writing political satires, series of

ribald and eventually set his career as a journalist. The

newspaper he owned, Le Père Duchesne has become

popular amongst sans-culottes with its earthy, loud-

mouthed style in such a short amount of time. Although

the first issues of the newspaper focused on clergy and

aristocracy, then continued with launching malicious

campaigns against King Louis XVI. He first took his

step into Revolution with his membership to a radical

club called Cordeliers; which was an intelligent move

for the time due to the club’s impartial status. The club

belonged neither to the bloc of Montagnards nor

Girondin’s. Despite this impartiality, members still

joined to the Insurrection of August 10th and Paris Figure 12. Sans-Culottes during Bastille Day116

114Heller, Henry. The Bourgeois Revolution in France, 1789-1815. New York: Berghahn Books, 2009.115Ibid. 116 "Bastille Liberty Painting Day." Cell Code RSS. Accessed March, 2019. https://cellcode.us/quotes/bastille-liberty-painting-day.html.

39

Commune which was under the control of the Jacobin club.117 Young Hébert was rather in a

remarkable status within the Convention. He had supporters in the hall, in Club Cordeliers, in

Commune and most importantly in the Parisian revolutionary army. He helped to the planning of

Insurrection of August 10th and his supporters, Hébertists have turned Notre-Dame Cathedral

into a Temple of Reason during the Insurrection- followed by 2,000 more churches. This

influence continued with Hébert being elected as an assistant placeholder for the General of the

Commune, which later became the governing body of Paris. He also joined to Jacobin Club and

during the period of debates upon whether Louis should be executed or not, he turned his

newspaper into a mouthpiece for sans-culottes. Publishing articles over articles demanding his

execution, the elimination of Girondins and most importantly a new Revolutionary

government.118

He shortly became the leader of sans-culottes. ‘Sans-culottes' (without panties) were

named after its urban worker followers who wears cut off trousers below the knee in summer

months. However, in reality, they were named in this way in order to signify their difference with

upper classes who wear ‘culottes' because they wore only trousers. The ‘upper-class' that they

were referring to was mainly wake-earning artisans with their businesses such as carpenters and

plumbers. They mainly came to the forefront with assaulting and taking Bastille as well as their

efforts on bringing King Louis XVI back to Paris. They were fearless and powerful, also adopted

the philosophy of ‘For the People' which brought them the control of the National Guard soon

after. Sans-culottes mainly disliked the aristocracy and persistently dedicated themselves to

maintaining equality between classes one day. They also believed in ‘direct democracy' which

meant that if there are representatives of people who cannot be delegated, people should be %100

free to change them.119 In short, they believed they have a right to insurrection if Assembly

abuses the people they are representing which made them extreme radical revolutionaries during

the Revolution.

iii. Girondins

117 "Figures in a Revolution: Jacques-René Hébert & the Sans-Culottes." General History. August 02, 2012. Accessed March, 2019. http://general-history.com/figures-in-a-revolution-jacques-rene-hebert-the-sans-culottes/.118 Ibid. 119 "French Revolution." OpenLearn. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/history-art/french-revolution/content-section-4.5.

40

Commune which was under the control of the Jacobin club.117 Young Hébert was rather in a

remarkable status within the Convention. He had supporters in the hall, in Club Cordeliers, in

Commune and most importantly in the Parisian revolutionary army. He helped to the planning of

Insurrection of August 10th and his supporters, Hébertists have turned Notre-Dame Cathedral

into a Temple of Reason during the Insurrection- followed by 2,000 more churches. This

influence continued with Hébert being elected as an assistant placeholder for the General of the

Commune, which later became the governing body of Paris. He also joined to Jacobin Club and

during the period of debates upon whether Louis should be executed or not, he turned his

newspaper into a mouthpiece for sans-culottes. Publishing articles over articles demanding his

execution, the elimination of Girondins and most importantly a new Revolutionary

government.118

He shortly became the leader of sans-culottes. ‘Sans-culottes' (without panties) were

named after its urban worker followers who wears cut off trousers below the knee in summer

months. However, in reality, they were named in this way in order to signify their difference with

upper classes who wear ‘culottes' because they wore only trousers. The ‘upper-class' that they

were referring to was mainly wake-earning artisans with their businesses such as carpenters and

plumbers. They mainly came to the forefront with assaulting and taking Bastille as well as their

efforts on bringing King Louis XVI back to Paris. They were fearless and powerful, also adopted

the philosophy of ‘For the People' which brought them the control of the National Guard soon

after. Sans-culottes mainly disliked the aristocracy and persistently dedicated themselves to

maintaining equality between classes one day. They also believed in ‘direct democracy' which

meant that if there are representatives of people who cannot be delegated, people should be %100

free to change them.119 In short, they believed they have a right to insurrection if Assembly

abuses the people they are representing which made them extreme radical revolutionaries during

the Revolution.

iii. Girondins

117 "Figures in a Revolution: Jacques-René Hébert & the Sans-Culottes." General History. August 02, 2012. Accessed March, 2019. http://general-history.com/figures-in-a-revolution-jacques-rene-hebert-the-sans-culottes/.118 Ibid. 119 "French Revolution." OpenLearn. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/history-art/french-revolution/content-section-4.5.

The Girondins were a political

faction in the Legislative Assembly and

National Convention. The most influential

figure in this party was Jacques-Pierre

Brissot who was vital in the decision for

Girondins to declare war on Austria and the

reason for this was that Brissot thought this

would add even more keenness for the Revolution. Figure 13. Girondins120

They were at first aligned with the Jacobins because both groups believed in the

Revolution and were against the power the clergy had. However, the Girondins later separated

from them as their views began to differ. This split stemmed mainly from the fact that the

Girondins were less radical than the Jacobins. This can be seen in the most significant debate

between the Girondins and the Jacobins on whether King Louis XVI should be executed. While

the Girondins did not want to execute the King and sought a constitutional monarchy, the

Jacobins, on the other hand, believed he had to be killed to make sure the revolution was

successful. The Girondins failed as the King was killed and the Jacobins proved to be

victorious.121

The Girondins were not held in a positive light in the eyes of the people. The public had a

thirst for violence to which the Jacobins encouraged. The September massacres could be shown

as a prime example of this. The Girondins strived to convince crowds not to kill the prisoners

whereas the Jacobins urged them to and also when a Jacobin journalist named Jean-Paul Marat

was imprisoned for attacking Girondins, the public welcomed him with open arms when he was

released.122 Since the Girondins had a more moderate stance than that of the Jacobins and

because they tried to prevent the King from being executed, they were seen as royalists. Charles

Francois Dumouriez, who was a French general during the revolutionary wars, was seen as being

closely affiliated with the Girondins. When he abandoned the national army and declared that he

would invade Paris to return the monarchy, this did not help the already declining image of the

120 "ExecutedToday.com." ExecutedToday.com » 1793: The Girondists. Accessed March, 2019. http://www.executedtoday.com/2008/10/31/1793-girondins-girondists-pierre-vergniaud/.121 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopedia. "Girondin." Encyclopædia Britannica. June 30, 2017. Accessed March 19, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Girondin. 122 Ibid.

41

Girondins and helped lead to their downfall. The Sans-culottes demanded that all Girondin

Assembly members be expelled. The twenty-nine Girondin members were sent to the guillotine,

and this marked the end of their political faction.

iv. The Plains

The Plain, also known as the ‘Marsh’ because they sat on the floor of the assembly, was a

faction within the National Convention who did not pledge to be fully part of any of the other

political parties. It is estimated that there were about 350 deputies within the Assembly that held

no definite place within the left and right wing. Although these deputies held no preference in

party choice, they still believed in the ideals of the revolution. Those who were part of the Plain,

despite the fact they held no explicit membership, often sided with the left in matters left to a

vote. However, in some instances, they would also take the side of the right. The Plain made up

the majority in the Assembly, and therefore both the Girondins and the Montagnards tried to gain

their favour to pass laws that they held a preference to. The fact that they were large in number

gave them the ability to influence the balance of power in the Convention. Initially, the plain

voted in favour of the Girondins, but in time they shifted towards the Montagnards. Since a large

number of them stood with the Montagnards in 1793, it did not make it difficult to cast out the

Girondins during that time. The Plain had moderate to conservative views and stayed true to their

non-committal politics. However, in time a minority of them went on to become part of the

government in the time of terror whereas the majority joined the Thermidorians in the future.123

III) THE TERROR PERIOD

A. The beginning of the Terror (1793)

i.The Rise of Maximilien Robespierre and Montagnards

Maximilien Robespierre, who is the rising figure of the Convention, was born in a little

French city Arras, in 1758. He lost his mom when he was only six years old, and his father

abandoned his family afterwards. Little Robespierre started to live with his elderly relatives who

always brought up his tragedy and blamed his father. He was the eldest amongst his siblings, and

he became a very hardworking scholar in no time. As soon as he became a lawyer, he took the

responsibility of his remained family and started living a quiet life in Arras. He was popular with

123 Thiers, Adolphe, and Frederic Shoberl. The History of the French Revolution. New York: Scribner and Welford, 1881.

42

Girondins and helped lead to their downfall. The Sans-culottes demanded that all Girondin

Assembly members be expelled. The twenty-nine Girondin members were sent to the guillotine,

and this marked the end of their political faction.

iv. The Plains

The Plain, also known as the ‘Marsh’ because they sat on the floor of the assembly, was a

faction within the National Convention who did not pledge to be fully part of any of the other

political parties. It is estimated that there were about 350 deputies within the Assembly that held

no definite place within the left and right wing. Although these deputies held no preference in

party choice, they still believed in the ideals of the revolution. Those who were part of the Plain,

despite the fact they held no explicit membership, often sided with the left in matters left to a

vote. However, in some instances, they would also take the side of the right. The Plain made up

the majority in the Assembly, and therefore both the Girondins and the Montagnards tried to gain

their favour to pass laws that they held a preference to. The fact that they were large in number

gave them the ability to influence the balance of power in the Convention. Initially, the plain

voted in favour of the Girondins, but in time they shifted towards the Montagnards. Since a large

number of them stood with the Montagnards in 1793, it did not make it difficult to cast out the

Girondins during that time. The Plain had moderate to conservative views and stayed true to their

non-committal politics. However, in time a minority of them went on to become part of the

government in the time of terror whereas the majority joined the Thermidorians in the future.123

III) THE TERROR PERIOD

A. The beginning of the Terror (1793)

i.The Rise of Maximilien Robespierre and Montagnards

Maximilien Robespierre, who is the rising figure of the Convention, was born in a little

French city Arras, in 1758. He lost his mom when he was only six years old, and his father

abandoned his family afterwards. Little Robespierre started to live with his elderly relatives who

always brought up his tragedy and blamed his father. He was the eldest amongst his siblings, and

he became a very hardworking scholar in no time. As soon as he became a lawyer, he took the

responsibility of his remained family and started living a quiet life in Arras. He was popular with

123 Thiers, Adolphe, and Frederic Shoberl. The History of the French Revolution. New York: Scribner and Welford, 1881.

his advocacy for the poor as well as his long and monotonous speeches. Revolution got into his life

when he was 29 years old, with his election for the Third Estate (commons) in the Estates-General

in May.124

He fastidiously worked to build himself a reputation as a

public speaker in the Assembly. Robespierre was already dominant

in the Jacobin Club, and his performance was gaining attention in

debates held in revolutionary clubs. One of the most important

reasons why his reputation rocketed up was his endless defence for

the extension of ‘rights of man’ to all men, no matter what Estate or

background one was coming from which was also the most

convenient idea to defend back in the 1790s due to the heated

atmosphere of Revolution all around the French soil.125

Figure 14. Maximilien Robespierre126

His political profile was radical and democratic, which made him even more popular among

sans-culottes and left wing. He was a spokesman for the opposition and he consistently criticised

current government. Surprisingly enough, he strongly objected the idea of the death penalty in his

first years in the Revolutionary clubs but one major thing that led Robespierre to change his mind

was the dramatic derogation that his country was going through between the years of 1789-1792.

According to him, there was a great ineptness in setting up a feasible constitutional

monarchy under King Louis XVI. France was under threat by other European countries, also a civil

war which caused the persistence of a hostile atmosphere not only in Paris but also all around the

country. One mighty name from the Girondins, Jacques-Pierre Brissot was openly trying to polarise

French politics. According to him, the conflict between Royalists, Revolutionaries and counter-

revolutionaries would eventually lead to the fall of Monarchy. Although his views were passionate,

his tactics were instead dispersed but still, he was so influential that everybody followed his

124 Kim, Minchul. "The Many Robespierres from 1794 to the Present." History of European Ideas 41, no. 7 (2015): 992-96. doi:10.1080/01916599.2015.1029729.125 Ibid.126 "Herodote.net." L'Incorruptible - Herodote.net. February 06, 2019. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.herodote.net/Robespierre_1758_1794_-synthese-224.php.

43

words.127 Under these conditions, general opinions of politicians and blocs became more

suspicious, fearful and eventually, the optimistic side of Revolution vanished.

Robespierre delivered speeches that target Brissot about possible consequences of

provoking counter-revolutionaries and how it could divide France, but his ideas seemed

‘unpopular’ compared to Brissot’s which caused him to become politically isolated. In the summer

of 1792, what Robespierre foresaw became a reality and the French army was nearly defeated in

the First Coalition War with its inexperienced troops as well as its disorganisation. Many

Revolutionarists thought that King Louis was sabotaging his own country for the sake of Monarchy

which lent credence to the words of Robespierre.128

When Monarchy was over and a new government, National Convention has formed in

September 1792 his ascendance in the Jacobin Club was unprecedented. However, after all the

betrayals, wars and deaths popular violence started to be considered as a political right to turn the

tide towards the direction that Revolutionarists wanted. One of the most obvious examples of this

belief in action was September Massacres. Apart from Robespierre’s thoughts, the National

Convention was established with the aim of avoiding the repetition of these pitiless scenes ever

again, but violence was already seen as an instrument of government. When the Convention was

discussing the situation of King Louis XVI, Robespierre and his closest colleague Saint-Just

delivered numerous speeches with the main idea of ‘Louis must die for the Revolution to live’.129

The reason why he changed from being an anti-death penalty politician to this point was his

increasing belief in ‘end justifies the means’ which is the philosophy that argues a good outcome

can excuse all the wrong actions committed to achieving it.

To protect Revolution against any attempts of an attack, shedding the blood was justified

according to Robespierre. The meaning of this for King Louis was, he should be executed which

was the final decision of Convention in January of 1793 followed by his execution. The Jacobin

club kept increasing its effect and dominance throughout the Convention. Although Girondins and

Jacobins were both demonstrating political opinions near to each other, improving the efficiency

of Jacobins in using force and setting up a war government got ahead of the inefficiency of Girondin

127 Skocpol, Theda, and Meyer Kestnbaum. "The French Revolution in World-Historical Perspective." The French Revolution and the Birth of Modernity. Accessed March, 2019. https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft2h4nb1h9&chunk.id=d0e216&toc.id=&brand=ucpress.128 Ibid.129 "Robespierre (3 December 1792)." Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/3187.

44

words.127 Under these conditions, general opinions of politicians and blocs became more

suspicious, fearful and eventually, the optimistic side of Revolution vanished.

Robespierre delivered speeches that target Brissot about possible consequences of

provoking counter-revolutionaries and how it could divide France, but his ideas seemed

‘unpopular’ compared to Brissot’s which caused him to become politically isolated. In the summer

of 1792, what Robespierre foresaw became a reality and the French army was nearly defeated in

the First Coalition War with its inexperienced troops as well as its disorganisation. Many

Revolutionarists thought that King Louis was sabotaging his own country for the sake of Monarchy

which lent credence to the words of Robespierre.128

When Monarchy was over and a new government, National Convention has formed in

September 1792 his ascendance in the Jacobin Club was unprecedented. However, after all the

betrayals, wars and deaths popular violence started to be considered as a political right to turn the

tide towards the direction that Revolutionarists wanted. One of the most obvious examples of this

belief in action was September Massacres. Apart from Robespierre’s thoughts, the National

Convention was established with the aim of avoiding the repetition of these pitiless scenes ever

again, but violence was already seen as an instrument of government. When the Convention was

discussing the situation of King Louis XVI, Robespierre and his closest colleague Saint-Just

delivered numerous speeches with the main idea of ‘Louis must die for the Revolution to live’.129

The reason why he changed from being an anti-death penalty politician to this point was his

increasing belief in ‘end justifies the means’ which is the philosophy that argues a good outcome

can excuse all the wrong actions committed to achieving it.

To protect Revolution against any attempts of an attack, shedding the blood was justified

according to Robespierre. The meaning of this for King Louis was, he should be executed which

was the final decision of Convention in January of 1793 followed by his execution. The Jacobin

club kept increasing its effect and dominance throughout the Convention. Although Girondins and

Jacobins were both demonstrating political opinions near to each other, improving the efficiency

of Jacobins in using force and setting up a war government got ahead of the inefficiency of Girondin

127 Skocpol, Theda, and Meyer Kestnbaum. "The French Revolution in World-Historical Perspective." The French Revolution and the Birth of Modernity. Accessed March, 2019. https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft2h4nb1h9&chunk.id=d0e216&toc.id=&brand=ucpress.128 Ibid.129 "Robespierre (3 December 1792)." Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/3187.

leader Brissot. Robespierre soon became the copious leader of the Montagnards within the

Convention. His speeches were rigorously prepared and though his power, he started to gain haters

too. According to his haters, he did not know where to stop in his statements, and he was always

choosing the harsher road for the solution of any problem.130

Figure 15. Salon of Jacobin Club131

In the first half 1793, until the Committee of Public Safety (COPS) and Committee of

General Security (COGS) were established he spent his months to find a way to inactivate

Girondins since they still had a considerable power within the Convention. He always

encouraged members of the Jacobin club to take action against Girondins, especially to Jacques

Brissot. His efforts paid off on 2nd of June, 1793 (just after the Committee of Public Safety was

established) with an uprising from National Guard and sans-culottes forcing 29 Girondin deputies

for their exclusion from the Convention. Robespierre was the name behind this provocation

although he always blamed ‘popular will’ as guilty. Now as the primary opposition bloc was

gone, there was nothing left to stop him from increasing his influence even more. In July 1793,

he was selected as the spokesman of Committee of Public Safety on the floor of the Convention.

As COPS became an executive power, Robespierre -one of twelve members- moved into being in

the opposition side to having authority as a government.

130 Ibid.131 Akg-Images. "Closure of the Jacobin Club, in the Course of the Night of 27/28 June." Akg. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.akg-images.co.uk/archive/Closure-of-the-Jacobin-Club--in-the-course-of-the-night-of-27-28-June-2UMDHUW8S4CP.html.

45

ii. Wars of Vendée

Vendée, located in the West of France and 300 miles away from Paris, was very distant to

all dramatic and drastic changes that capital was going through. Region nearly had any towns or

cities, which made it entirely rural. Majority of citizens were living as farmers, and their lifestyle

was rather comfortable compared to other regions due to its locational advantage. Speaking of

general atmosphere, they were not as affected by drastic changes and dramatic events as their

counterparts in the country. Their relation with the First Estate was better compared to other regions

since it was filled with responsible and tolerant noblemen. Also, they were quite religious and

dependent on their local clergy.132

With the aggregation of all these reasons, their attitude towards the Revolution was rather

passionless which has affected their participation too. Although they showed mild support towards

the feudal reform, they did not actively take part in the events of July-August 1789. Additionally,

they were quite disturbed by the bloody trial and execution of King Louis XVI which made

Vendéens more reactant towards the new government. This apathy had also caused the alienation

of Vendéans when events of 1790 were taking place.133 First signs of unrest amongst the citizens

appeared when food policies of the new government and current situation of taxes did not match.

While market prices were decreasing, citizens’ income was also and the number of taxes that

citizens had to pay to Government was also increasing.

Another problem for Vendéans was National Convention’s attacks on the church. Civil

Constitution of the Clergy was already highly reacted in the western regions of the country and

especially in this region priests refused to take the oath. Tension has increased with the arrival of

constitutional priests to Vendée in 1791-1792 and continued with a small scaled furious resistance

towards the actions of the government. This resistance had turned into a counter-revolutionary

resistance when National Convention demanded 300.000 additional soldiers from the regions

around France for the war with England.134 As tension increased, Vendéan workers have

participated in more provocative attacks on the symbols of the new Government. Officials, juring

132 "Vendée Wars." Poitou Charentes Vendée. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.poitou-charentes-vendee.com/the-vendee/history/vendee-wars/.133 Ibid.134 Ibid.

46

ii. Wars of Vendée

Vendée, located in the West of France and 300 miles away from Paris, was very distant to

all dramatic and drastic changes that capital was going through. Region nearly had any towns or

cities, which made it entirely rural. Majority of citizens were living as farmers, and their lifestyle

was rather comfortable compared to other regions due to its locational advantage. Speaking of

general atmosphere, they were not as affected by drastic changes and dramatic events as their

counterparts in the country. Their relation with the First Estate was better compared to other regions

since it was filled with responsible and tolerant noblemen. Also, they were quite religious and

dependent on their local clergy.132

With the aggregation of all these reasons, their attitude towards the Revolution was rather

passionless which has affected their participation too. Although they showed mild support towards

the feudal reform, they did not actively take part in the events of July-August 1789. Additionally,

they were quite disturbed by the bloody trial and execution of King Louis XVI which made

Vendéens more reactant towards the new government. This apathy had also caused the alienation

of Vendéans when events of 1790 were taking place.133 First signs of unrest amongst the citizens

appeared when food policies of the new government and current situation of taxes did not match.

While market prices were decreasing, citizens’ income was also and the number of taxes that

citizens had to pay to Government was also increasing.

Another problem for Vendéans was National Convention’s attacks on the church. Civil

Constitution of the Clergy was already highly reacted in the western regions of the country and

especially in this region priests refused to take the oath. Tension has increased with the arrival of

constitutional priests to Vendée in 1791-1792 and continued with a small scaled furious resistance

towards the actions of the government. This resistance had turned into a counter-revolutionary

resistance when National Convention demanded 300.000 additional soldiers from the regions

around France for the war with England.134 As tension increased, Vendéan workers have

participated in more provocative attacks on the symbols of the new Government. Officials, juring

132 "Vendée Wars." Poitou Charentes Vendée. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.poitou-charentes-vendee.com/the-vendee/history/vendee-wars/.133 Ibid.134 Ibid.

priests and Republicans were beaten, driven out or even murdered. In mid-March of 1793, Two

significant leaders of this ‘war’ were Louis d’Elbée and Jean-Nicholas Stofflet who led the

Vendéen army through first capturing: Chemillé.

In April 1793, the majority of the Vendéan soldiers were composed of Catholic and Royal

army with a total number of 80.000; most of them were labourers, children and women disguised

as men. Their slogan was ‘Dieu et Roi’ (God and King), and they crucially lacked equipment.135

However, neither their lack of discipline nor

training made them dissolve so quickly

because republican armies were already

disorganised for the past four years with

disruptions. For the following three months,

Vendéans captured nearly all of the important

towns in the region such as Vihiers, Saumur,

Angers and the most critical village Cholet

followed by its departmental capital Fontenay-

le-Comte.

Figure 16. Map of Armies136

Marquis de Bonchamps made one critical decision. He refused to kill nearly 500 Revolutionarist

prisoners when he had the chance and represented a great example of humanity. The army under

the control of the Committee of Public Safety still had a small number of troops. Two months after

the war began, in late June 1793 Catholic and Royal army laid siege to one of the biggest cities of

France, Nantes. This time however, their lack of organisation was not compensated, and the attack

failed. Eventually one of the leading commanders, Jacques Cathelineau was killed on Bastille Day.

Through October, Government forces gained more power and started increasing the dominance

back one by one. For the last move, Vendéan army tried to unite counter-revolutionaries in Britanny

and Normandy followed by their march to the port city of Granville- where they hoped to meet

with English marines which would enable them to at least escape. However, who they encountered

135 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Wars of the Vendée." Encyclopædia Britannica. March 31, 2016. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/event/Wars-of-the-Vendee.136 "The Vendée Wars." In The Vendée. Accessed March, 2019. https://inthevendee.com/tourism-leisure/the-vendee-wars/.

47

with was not pro-monarchial British forces; it was the army controlled by the Committee of Public

Safety.137

Soldiers in the Vendéan army were down to 8,000, and they were eventually surrounded

and defeated by 18,000 soldiers of the new order. Only 4.000 rebels were alive and what happened

next was reprisal campaigns towards Vendée that bordered on more violent actions. Republican

forces started to execute all of the involved royalists regardless of their age, gender and activities.

Committee of Public Safety has authorised the formation of Colonnes Infernales (‘Infernal

Columns’) composed by 12 army divisions which will ‘pacify the region’ by keeping only 12

villages and setting fire the rest With the commander General Louis Marie Turreau, they swept the

region in the first six months of 1794. Buildings were torn, destruction was massive, and more than

6.000 Vendéans (400 of them were children) were executed by guillotine, knife, or even forcibly

drowned.

iii. New regulations

a. Law of General Maximum

By early 1793, there were a lot of food shortages and excessive prices throughout the

market due to the struggling nature of France in and out. First encouragement of solving this

problem was made by sans-culottes to National Convention, followed by the ‘Enragés’ (ones who

are enraged). Enragés were not a political party, they were just a group of people, raged against

the individuals whom they believe were profiting from extraordinary food prices. Their main aim

was to have a society with economic equality, which puts them to a very similar ground with

Marxist socialists. Their most outstanding member was Jacques Roux, who used to be a Catholic

churchman but later transformed into a radical activist within his club.138

He was also active in the Paris Commune, which was again dominated by Robespierre,

but he had a significant contribution to the work of ‘poor’, also with the location and the

distribution of the food. Roux’s speeches did not create a great reaction when he tried to warn the

deputies in the Convention, but his matters were provided on the streets of Paris by regular

citizens. In February 1793, a series of market riots started and followed by massive protests

against shockingly high prices for bread, sugar or even soap. As the demonstrations kept going,

137 Ibid. 138 Darrow, Margaret H. "Economic Terror in the City: The General Maximum in Montauban." French Historical Studies 17, no. 2 (1991): 498. doi:10.2307/286467.

48

with was not pro-monarchial British forces; it was the army controlled by the Committee of Public

Safety.137

Soldiers in the Vendéan army were down to 8,000, and they were eventually surrounded

and defeated by 18,000 soldiers of the new order. Only 4.000 rebels were alive and what happened

next was reprisal campaigns towards Vendée that bordered on more violent actions. Republican

forces started to execute all of the involved royalists regardless of their age, gender and activities.

Committee of Public Safety has authorised the formation of Colonnes Infernales (‘Infernal

Columns’) composed by 12 army divisions which will ‘pacify the region’ by keeping only 12

villages and setting fire the rest With the commander General Louis Marie Turreau, they swept the

region in the first six months of 1794. Buildings were torn, destruction was massive, and more than

6.000 Vendéans (400 of them were children) were executed by guillotine, knife, or even forcibly

drowned.

iii. New regulations

a. Law of General Maximum

By early 1793, there were a lot of food shortages and excessive prices throughout the

market due to the struggling nature of France in and out. First encouragement of solving this

problem was made by sans-culottes to National Convention, followed by the ‘Enragés’ (ones who

are enraged). Enragés were not a political party, they were just a group of people, raged against

the individuals whom they believe were profiting from extraordinary food prices. Their main aim

was to have a society with economic equality, which puts them to a very similar ground with

Marxist socialists. Their most outstanding member was Jacques Roux, who used to be a Catholic

churchman but later transformed into a radical activist within his club.138

He was also active in the Paris Commune, which was again dominated by Robespierre,

but he had a significant contribution to the work of ‘poor’, also with the location and the

distribution of the food. Roux’s speeches did not create a great reaction when he tried to warn the

deputies in the Convention, but his matters were provided on the streets of Paris by regular

citizens. In February 1793, a series of market riots started and followed by massive protests

against shockingly high prices for bread, sugar or even soap. As the demonstrations kept going,

137 Ibid. 138 Darrow, Margaret H. "Economic Terror in the City: The General Maximum in Montauban." French Historical Studies 17, no. 2 (1991): 498. doi:10.2307/286467.

violence arouse and various threats towards bakers and grocers for them to lower their price

increased massively.

While streets were facing with a considerable amount of disorder, Convention was already

occupied by matters of war and power clashes between two biggest blocs. With the alliance of

radical journalists with the Jacobin side, all the media started to blame Girondins for the high

food prices. As public perception was under great exposure to this idea, Enragés began to

associate Girondins with their business interests and the problem. As of May 1793, members of

the Jacobin club took their side with sans-culottes over their food policy, but their real intention

was to gain public support and eventually finish the reputation of Girondins forever. Although

Robespierre kept his anger towards this conflict situation to himself for a while, he urged the

Convention to take a step for price controls and profiteers with fixing the prices of wheat and

flour.139 However, the Girondin side opposed to his ideas by expressing their belief for an

automatic decrease in the costs throughout the time.

After this statement, sans-culottes took Robespierre’s side and began to demand the

removal of Girondins from the Convention- like

how he planned. On 2nd of June, 1793 the

rising public pressure and the provocations of

the Jacobin club has caused the expulsion of

Girondin deputies. Now the only dominant

power within the Convention was Maximilien

Robespierre and his Jacobin followers. Later on,

Jacques Roux delivered a heated speech in the

hall and challenged Montagnard deputies to

take strong action for the situation. Jacobins

were already succeeded in their intentions and

that's why they chose to prison him for silence.

However, sans-culottes insisted with their demands Figure 17. A sans-culotte musing over prices140

139 "The Law of the Maximum." French Revolution. June 01, 2018. Accessed March, 2019. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/law-of-the-maximum/.140 "The Sans-culottes." French Revolution. June 01, 2018. Accessed March 20, 2019. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/sans-culottes/.

49

for action with a petition, with stating they would start to‘'cut off the heads of the rich, as they

have done to the courtiers of the king'' unless the Convention fixes the maximum price.

Just after this petition, on 29th of September Convention directly passed Laws of the

Maximum (also known as the General Maximum). This legislation set a maximum price on

the essential goods on dozens such as fresh meat, salt meat and bacon, butter, sweet oil,

cattle, salt fish, wine, brandy, vinegar, beer, firewood, charcoal etc141. By this law, all of the

merchants required to display a list of their prices outside their store and if any of the costs

exceed the maximum, the public had the right to inform authorities. Other prominent three

articles were as follows:

‘’8. The maximum or highest figure for salaries, wages, manual labour, and days of labour in every place shall be established, dating from the publication of the present law until the month of September next, by the general councils of the communes, at the same rate as in 1790, plus one-half.

9. The municipalities may put in requisition and punish, according to circumstances, with three days' imprisonment, workmen, manufacturers, and divers labourers who refuse, without legitimate grounds, to do their usual work. . . .

17. During the war, all exportation of essential merchandise or commodities is prohibited on all frontiers, under any name or commission whatsoever, with the exception of salt.’’142

The fine for any illegal price was determined as double the value of the overpriced

good but the fine had to be paid to the denouncer, not to the state. Transport costs were also

undervalued. However, this move to fix the prices had created a greater crisis for the

economy, since it discouraged farmers and producers on a grand scale. Their productions

decreased and they chose to pile the products up instead of selling their labour for less to the

merchants. Less food caused more shortages and as a result, urban retailers started to barely

survive economically. This reaction chain finally emerged to a black market for illegal

traders and those who are ready to pay more.

141 Darrow, Margaret H. "Economic Terror in the City: The General Maximum in Montauban." French Historical Studies 17, no. 2 (1991): 498. doi:10.2307/286467. 142 "The Maximum." Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/3096.

50

for action with a petition, with stating they would start to‘'cut off the heads of the rich, as they

have done to the courtiers of the king'' unless the Convention fixes the maximum price.

Just after this petition, on 29th of September Convention directly passed Laws of the

Maximum (also known as the General Maximum). This legislation set a maximum price on

the essential goods on dozens such as fresh meat, salt meat and bacon, butter, sweet oil,

cattle, salt fish, wine, brandy, vinegar, beer, firewood, charcoal etc141. By this law, all of the

merchants required to display a list of their prices outside their store and if any of the costs

exceed the maximum, the public had the right to inform authorities. Other prominent three

articles were as follows:

‘’8. The maximum or highest figure for salaries, wages, manual labour, and days of labour in every place shall be established, dating from the publication of the present law until the month of September next, by the general councils of the communes, at the same rate as in 1790, plus one-half.

9. The municipalities may put in requisition and punish, according to circumstances, with three days' imprisonment, workmen, manufacturers, and divers labourers who refuse, without legitimate grounds, to do their usual work. . . .

17. During the war, all exportation of essential merchandise or commodities is prohibited on all frontiers, under any name or commission whatsoever, with the exception of salt.’’142

The fine for any illegal price was determined as double the value of the overpriced

good but the fine had to be paid to the denouncer, not to the state. Transport costs were also

undervalued. However, this move to fix the prices had created a greater crisis for the

economy, since it discouraged farmers and producers on a grand scale. Their productions

decreased and they chose to pile the products up instead of selling their labour for less to the

merchants. Less food caused more shortages and as a result, urban retailers started to barely

survive economically. This reaction chain finally emerged to a black market for illegal

traders and those who are ready to pay more.

141 Darrow, Margaret H. "Economic Terror in the City: The General Maximum in Montauban." French Historical Studies 17, no. 2 (1991): 498. doi:10.2307/286467. 142 "The Maximum." Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/3096.

b. Dechristianization and Religion

After the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, throughout the years from 1790 to 1793

there had been a significant loss of reputation for the church. Although the Constitutional

Church was allowed to continue its work, both the Convention and Jacobins considered the

Catholicism as a suspicious and dangerous mechanism that could harm the Revolution. The

concealed nature of worshipping and Church's ties with Ancien Régime were contrary to the

values of the new Republic according to the Committee of Public Safety which created a

movement called ‘dechristianisation’. The main aim of this movement was to eliminate all

the possible effects of religion on French Society.143 With the order of Maximilien

Robespierre priests of the Church were encouraged to abandon priesthood and if, there are

many cases of continuation to religious practices they were going to be under arrest or even

get deported from France.

In October 1793 public worship was finally forbidden by the Convention and a major

amount of Christianity symbols were taken away. This antagonist policy of the government

was followed by a specific enthusiasm by the Revolutionary army towards the Church and

priests since they created a safeguard and a reason for counter-revolutionaries to rise in

rebellion. Bells of the Church and crosses were taken down and melted with the explanation

of ‘war effort' as statues, works of art were taken away or even destroyed. This hysteria of

iconoclasm also caused the destruction of an enormous amount of artistic and cultural

heritage of France. On 23th of November 1793 all churches were closed with the order of

National Convention and turned into warehouses or even stalls. Public places and streets that

had names of Saints changed into new, Republican-themed names.144

This dechristianization period continued with changing the calendar that was in use.

According to Jacobins, the Gregorian calendar was untidy with ‘uneven months’ and its

nomenclature was mostly done according to religious values. For instance, on Sundays,

every Christian was going to church and that day was holiday etc. The creator of this new

Republican calendar, mathematician-politician Charles Gilbert Romme put no terms that

could be associated with Ancien Régime or any kind of religious terms.

143 Gliozzo, Charles A. "The Philosophes and Religion: Intellectual Origins of the Dechristianization Movement in the French Revolution." Church History 40, no. 03 (1971): 273. doi:10.2307/3163003. 144 Ibid.

51

Figure 18. Revolutionary army and priests145

In the new calendar, Year 1 began on September 22th, 1792 with the abolition of Monarchy

and it was decimal. Each month had 30 days and divided into three, as each ten-day was a week or

according to the calendar ‘decades'. Moreover, in the Gregorian calendar, one day consisted of a

total of 1440 minutes but now, a day lasted 10 hours with 144 minutes each. In Romme’s envision,

his calendar had to be available for use for those who work, and it should be simple like nature.

Saint’s days were changed with the resemblance of natural things such as chestnuts, saffron etc.146

But practically, a ten-day week was very long at the end. Months started, and the rest is as follows:

‘’AUTUMNSeptember: Vendémiaire – from the Latin for the grape harvestOctober: Brumaire – from the French for fogNovember: Frimaire – from the French for frostWINTERDecember: Nivôse – from the Latin for snowJanuary: Pluviôse – from the Latin for rainFebruary: Ventôse – from the Latin for windSPRINGMarch: Germinal – from the Latin for germinationApril: Floréal – from the Latin for flowerMay: Prairial – from the French for prairie or grazing landSUMMER:June: Messidor – from the Latin for corn harvestJuly: Thermidor – from the Greek for the sun’s heat

145 "War in the Vendée." Wikiwand. Accessed March, 2019. http://www.wikiwand.com/en/War_in_the_Vendée. 146 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "French Republican Calendar." Encyclopædia Britannica. July 15, 2014. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/science/French-republican-calendar.

52

Figure 18. Revolutionary army and priests145

In the new calendar, Year 1 began on September 22th, 1792 with the abolition of Monarchy

and it was decimal. Each month had 30 days and divided into three, as each ten-day was a week or

according to the calendar ‘decades'. Moreover, in the Gregorian calendar, one day consisted of a

total of 1440 minutes but now, a day lasted 10 hours with 144 minutes each. In Romme’s envision,

his calendar had to be available for use for those who work, and it should be simple like nature.

Saint’s days were changed with the resemblance of natural things such as chestnuts, saffron etc.146

But practically, a ten-day week was very long at the end. Months started, and the rest is as follows:

‘’AUTUMNSeptember: Vendémiaire – from the Latin for the grape harvestOctober: Brumaire – from the French for fogNovember: Frimaire – from the French for frostWINTERDecember: Nivôse – from the Latin for snowJanuary: Pluviôse – from the Latin for rainFebruary: Ventôse – from the Latin for windSPRINGMarch: Germinal – from the Latin for germinationApril: Floréal – from the Latin for flowerMay: Prairial – from the French for prairie or grazing landSUMMER:June: Messidor – from the Latin for corn harvestJuly: Thermidor – from the Greek for the sun’s heat

145 "War in the Vendée." Wikiwand. Accessed March, 2019. http://www.wikiwand.com/en/War_in_the_Vendée. 146 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "French Republican Calendar." Encyclopædia Britannica. July 15, 2014. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/science/French-republican-calendar.

August: Fructidor – from the Latin for fruit’’147

As for the days, it follows:

’Primidi (first day)-Duodi (second day)-Tridi (third day)-Quartidi (fourth day)-Quintidi(fifth day)-Sextidi (sixth day)-Septidi (seventh day)-Octidi (eighth day)-Nonidi (ninth day)-Décadi (tenth day)’’148

After all the dechristianization attempts and the new calendar, Revolution became more of religion

itself with an increasing effect of Cult of Reason amongst Revolutionarists. In the end, with the

formation of Temples of Reason, another value of French society became damaged.

B. Revolutionary Tribunal and the Purge

After establishing a convenient ground for their upcoming actions, Jacobins have decided

to form ‘The Revolutionary Tribunals' in March 1793. The real founding father of the idea was

Jean-Baptiste Carrier, who was also a Jacobin Lawyer. He was generally known for his restless

statements, revolutionary flame and most importantly his hate for organised religion. In March

1793, he first proposed the establishment of a new, highly authorised ‘revolutionary court' which

was going to be located in Paris. One of his biggest

supporters were Danton, who highly seconded this

idea by highlighting its possible deterring effect on

the enemies. His exact words were: ‘’Let us be

terrible, to dispense the people from being so’’.149

Fouquier-Tinville headed the Court and he had a total

of five judges, twelve-man jury and a secondary

group of public prosecutors. Every member was

chosen by the advice of the Committee of General

Security as it was granted with the power to combat Figure 19. Inside the Revolutionary Tribunal150

147 Munro, André. "The 12 Months of the French Republican Calendar." Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/list/the-12-months-of-the-french-republican-calendar.148 Ibid. 149 "Revolutionary Tribunals." French Revolution. June 01, 2018. Accessed March, 2019. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/revolutionary-tribunals/.150 "Inside a Revolutionary Committee during the Reign of Terror." Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/2752.

53

with any opposing or undermining groups to the Revolution. COGS already had its surveillance

groups all around the country, and as a natural consequence, they sent most of the suspects to the

Tribunal. But COPS and National Convention also took major actions during the identification

process with the help of provincial ‘représentants en mission’ (representatives on a mission).151

At first, The Court had numerous strict legal procedures which naturally increased the

number of acquittals because not every reporting case was ending up with a real betrayal to the

Revolution. But these particular legal procedures took so much time that both the National

Convention and the COPS were not satisfied with the number of guilty. Although the main aim of

this establishment was to protect the new government from any possible harm, it started to expand

in such a way that even little criticism would cause criminal charges with the manipulations of

Maximilien Robespierre. According to him, Revolutionary Tribunal was an outstanding way to

eliminate his opponents as well as it could give him further power for controlling his allies. On

27th of July, 1793 Robespierre was finally selected to the Committee of Public Safety.

As the head of Jacobins, the vast amount of power that he owns let him be selected since

he was both hardworking and influential. With the increasing number of deaths and gradually

growing Terror, on 5th of 1793, he delivered a speech in the National Convention. In his statement,

he called Terror as ‘’the order of the day’’.152 After this speech, there was a considerable amount

of support from other deputies of the Convention as well as the Committee members since someone

finally made the long-awaited justification. This was the official beginning of the Reign of Terror.

With the decision from the National Convention, the efficiency of Revolutionary Tribunal

expanded since now there was a total of four courts rather than one. Also, the number of jurors

increased from 16 to 48, and sansculottes had the dominance. Through time, these Tribunals

deviated from its real aim by evolving into political courts. Due to the dominance of the Jacobins

amongst the jurors, they had the power to decide upon who had to be on the court which granted

them with a power of nominating their political opponents.

One of the most critical death decisions from the Trials were Marie Antoinette's. It also

stands out as a good example of how the Tribunal made the decisions and how unrealistic they

could become. Former Queen sent to trial after a caustic press campaign made on her name

151 Lewis, Gwynne. Beyond the Terror: Essays in French Regional and Social History 1794-1815. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.152 "Terror Is the Order of the Day". Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/3095.

54

with any opposing or undermining groups to the Revolution. COGS already had its surveillance

groups all around the country, and as a natural consequence, they sent most of the suspects to the

Tribunal. But COPS and National Convention also took major actions during the identification

process with the help of provincial ‘représentants en mission’ (representatives on a mission).151

At first, The Court had numerous strict legal procedures which naturally increased the

number of acquittals because not every reporting case was ending up with a real betrayal to the

Revolution. But these particular legal procedures took so much time that both the National

Convention and the COPS were not satisfied with the number of guilty. Although the main aim of

this establishment was to protect the new government from any possible harm, it started to expand

in such a way that even little criticism would cause criminal charges with the manipulations of

Maximilien Robespierre. According to him, Revolutionary Tribunal was an outstanding way to

eliminate his opponents as well as it could give him further power for controlling his allies. On

27th of July, 1793 Robespierre was finally selected to the Committee of Public Safety.

As the head of Jacobins, the vast amount of power that he owns let him be selected since

he was both hardworking and influential. With the increasing number of deaths and gradually

growing Terror, on 5th of 1793, he delivered a speech in the National Convention. In his statement,

he called Terror as ‘’the order of the day’’.152 After this speech, there was a considerable amount

of support from other deputies of the Convention as well as the Committee members since someone

finally made the long-awaited justification. This was the official beginning of the Reign of Terror.

With the decision from the National Convention, the efficiency of Revolutionary Tribunal

expanded since now there was a total of four courts rather than one. Also, the number of jurors

increased from 16 to 48, and sansculottes had the dominance. Through time, these Tribunals

deviated from its real aim by evolving into political courts. Due to the dominance of the Jacobins

amongst the jurors, they had the power to decide upon who had to be on the court which granted

them with a power of nominating their political opponents.

One of the most critical death decisions from the Trials were Marie Antoinette's. It also

stands out as a good example of how the Tribunal made the decisions and how unrealistic they

could become. Former Queen sent to trial after a caustic press campaign made on her name

151 Lewis, Gwynne. Beyond the Terror: Essays in French Regional and Social History 1794-1815. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.152 "Terror Is the Order of the Day". Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/3095.

amongst the public, especially by Hebert. She had only two lawyers, and due to the rapidness of

the situation, they could not be as prepared as they wanted to be which caused weaknesses in her

defence. The Court made various accusations, including the manipulation of the King, funding

the enemies, planning Champ de Mars massacre etc. When the hearing of these accusations was

completed, as a Court member Hebert was granted with a right to speak. And he accused former

Queen with incest, yet more with his 8-year old son. Although there was a lack of evidence, the

Court decided upon her execution in only one hour and she was guillotined the very next day.

Another important fact that should be known about these Courts is, that there were no other

punishments but only guillotine. If the Court accused somebody, that somebody was either

acquitted or executed. One of the significant convictions of the jurors was the obscure basis of

‘moral certainty’. Suspects had no right to be represented or right to defend themselves. All of the

abovementioned problems have calculated in the total of 2,750 people who were guillotined,

which equals to more than 30 people sent for execution- per day.

C. Adopted Documents of COPS

i. Law of Suspects (17th of September 1793)

Law of Suspects was adopted by the Committee of Public Safety on 17th of September,

1793. The primary purpose of the Law was to give full authority to both National Convention and

COPS for establishing revolutionary tribunals as well as punishing those who are convicted with

death.153 The tribunals became the primary justice system of the Revolutionary government soon,

as they used it as their enforcement tool for any confirmed ‘traitors’. Terror was already all

around France: city, rural etc. Although the first mission of COPS was to maintain public order,

due to the nature of this system itself they were also responsible for identifying internal enemies.

For instance, the ones who are violating the Law of Maximum (profiteers) are performing poorly

in terms of strengthening the general will which makes them a convict.

153 Spohrer, Jennifer. The Law of Suspects. Accessed March, 2019. http://www.columbia.edu/~iw6/docs/suspects.html.

55

Figure 20. Law of Suspects154

Another reason why the Law of Suspects existed in the first place was the general motive

of solving any problematic situations from the beginning via the death penalty. Because France

was already the attack of neighbouring countries and also on the edge of a civil war- especially

between religious factions. Austria and Prussia were trying to invade French soil by conventional

war, and even infiltrating the borders via agents to provoke chaos. This Law also decreased the

number of necessary conditions for someone to be punished while obliging everyone to report

any suspects existent in their environment. If a citizen saw something suspicious, s/he had to

report it and surveillance groups would make a list of suspects while issuing warrants. All these

conditions gave COPS & Robespierre a great power because now they were free to imprison any

‘suspect' that they decided to, with their own ways and judgements.

1. Immediately after the publication of the present decree, all suspects within the territory of the Republic and still at large, shall be placed in custody.2. The following are deemed suspects:i. those who, by their conduct, associations, comments, or writings have shown themselves partisans of tyranny or federalism and enemies of liberty;ii. those who are unable to justify, in the manner prescribed by the decree of March 21st, their means of existence and the performance of their civic duties;

i. those former nobles, together with husbands, wives, fathers, mothers, sons or daughters, brothers or sisters, and agents of the émigrés, who have not consistently demonstrated their devotion to the Revolution;155

ii. Jacobin Constitution of 1793

154 France's Answer to Terrorism: The Law of Suspects." Sovereign Man. November 16, 2015. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.sovereignman.com/trends/frances-answer-to-terrorism-the-law-of-suspects-18244/.155 "The Law of Suspects." Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/3094

56

Figure 20. Law of Suspects154

Another reason why the Law of Suspects existed in the first place was the general motive

of solving any problematic situations from the beginning via the death penalty. Because France

was already the attack of neighbouring countries and also on the edge of a civil war- especially

between religious factions. Austria and Prussia were trying to invade French soil by conventional

war, and even infiltrating the borders via agents to provoke chaos. This Law also decreased the

number of necessary conditions for someone to be punished while obliging everyone to report

any suspects existent in their environment. If a citizen saw something suspicious, s/he had to

report it and surveillance groups would make a list of suspects while issuing warrants. All these

conditions gave COPS & Robespierre a great power because now they were free to imprison any

‘suspect' that they decided to, with their own ways and judgements.

1. Immediately after the publication of the present decree, all suspects within the territory of the Republic and still at large, shall be placed in custody.2. The following are deemed suspects:i. those who, by their conduct, associations, comments, or writings have shown themselves partisans of tyranny or federalism and enemies of liberty;ii. those who are unable to justify, in the manner prescribed by the decree of March 21st, their means of existence and the performance of their civic duties;

i. those former nobles, together with husbands, wives, fathers, mothers, sons or daughters, brothers or sisters, and agents of the émigrés, who have not consistently demonstrated their devotion to the Revolution;155

ii. Jacobin Constitution of 1793

154 France's Answer to Terrorism: The Law of Suspects." Sovereign Man. November 16, 2015. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.sovereignman.com/trends/frances-answer-to-terrorism-the-law-of-suspects-18244/.155 "The Law of Suspects." Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/3094

When the Convention was first established, its primary task was to create a new,

comprehensive republican constitution that could be useful for the continuity of this new order.

After the elimination of Girondins from the Conventions and Committees, the constitution finally

took its last version and became known as the "Montagnard Constitution". It mainly emphasised

the equal application for all French citizens and universal manhood suffrage. But other major

components were composed by natural rights of a human being, such as practising religion or

maintaining subsistence. Constitution mostly set a general model for a democratic republic but in

October 1793 it was suspended for the sake of Revolutionary Government until peace was

sustained.

IV) THE END

A. Thermidorian Reaction

i. Law of 22 Prairial (10th of June 1794)

After months of Terror and hundreds of guillotined French citizens, the most essential law of the

period was accepted by the Committees. Law of 22 Prairial was composed by clauses regarding

the rules that citizens can be executed for not obeying. It was such a long and radical list,

containing very controversial statements.

According to the Law of 22 Prairial,

1. Revolutionary Tribunal now had extended powers and could hear any cases regarding a

situation or even the possibility of a contradiction; such as depriving morals or even

spreading rumours.

2. A rumour was enough for a citizen to be seen as a suspect and now, trials only had 3 days

to make a final decision.

3. For the sake of being ‘faster’, juries were restrained from hearing any defence or witnesses

and had to decide solely based on the accusation.

4. There were only 2 options that a trial could conclude with, acquittal or the execution of the

suspect.

5. Most importantly, all the previous decisions taken for an individual would be cancelled.156

156 "The Law of 22 Prairial Year II (10 June 1794)." Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/439/.

57

The reason why the last decision is the most important one is that it finished off the trust that

committee members had with their pasts. Now, they were prone to be accused again with their

old allegations. This Law has caused the period to be more violent than ever since the terms used

in the clauses were so vague that a person could be blamed in any way or anyhow. Another

significant effect that it had on the Terror period was its encouragement towards more and illegal

executions. Unlike other decisions, this one created a great division between two committees and

members of the Committee of Public Safety started to deny that they gave their approval and

demanded revoke of it. Also, other deputies from the National Convention condemned it which

led to very heated discussions in the hall. Notwithstanding all these debates, the Law led to more

deaths, and 2/3 part of all executions took place after this law's approval.157

One of another important aspect of this Law was that it gave %100 control of the Terror to

COPS. Due to the radical actions and current situation of the Committee, this authorisation

signed more explicit political executions for the following days. Robespierre justified this

approval by highlighting its necessity for reaching a higher amount of control on anti-

revolutionaries during his speeches. This time however, his move did not bring respect and

support, but arched eyebrows since other members thought that this move was only made just

because Robespierre was trying to establish his one-person dictatorship by eliminating his

opponents. These doubts spread over outside of the committees and enemies of Robespierre

started to circulate rumours.158

ii. Uprisings and the arrest of Robespierre

When the date was June 1794, there was significant national fatigue due to the still

mounting executions. Especially with the approval of the Law of Prairial 22, the number of

deaths rocketed up. Besides, Paris was shaking with rumours against Robespierre and also his

leadership position within the COPS. An atmosphere full of tension was already in control since

both the members from COPS and COGS felt a significant amount of fear that they would also

become one of Robespierre’s victims- sooner or later. In mid-June, Robespierre became

extremely ill because of the fatigue from the last two years of leading COPS and the Terror. He

retired into seclusion and barely attended to the Convention as well as to the sessions of COPS.

This withdrawal encouraged the frustrated members, and they started to spread conspiracies as a

157 Law of 22 Prairial. Accessed March, 2019. http://www.columbia.edu/~iw6/docs/22debate.html.158 Ibid.

58

The reason why the last decision is the most important one is that it finished off the trust that

committee members had with their pasts. Now, they were prone to be accused again with their

old allegations. This Law has caused the period to be more violent than ever since the terms used

in the clauses were so vague that a person could be blamed in any way or anyhow. Another

significant effect that it had on the Terror period was its encouragement towards more and illegal

executions. Unlike other decisions, this one created a great division between two committees and

members of the Committee of Public Safety started to deny that they gave their approval and

demanded revoke of it. Also, other deputies from the National Convention condemned it which

led to very heated discussions in the hall. Notwithstanding all these debates, the Law led to more

deaths, and 2/3 part of all executions took place after this law's approval.157

One of another important aspect of this Law was that it gave %100 control of the Terror to

COPS. Due to the radical actions and current situation of the Committee, this authorisation

signed more explicit political executions for the following days. Robespierre justified this

approval by highlighting its necessity for reaching a higher amount of control on anti-

revolutionaries during his speeches. This time however, his move did not bring respect and

support, but arched eyebrows since other members thought that this move was only made just

because Robespierre was trying to establish his one-person dictatorship by eliminating his

opponents. These doubts spread over outside of the committees and enemies of Robespierre

started to circulate rumours.158

ii. Uprisings and the arrest of Robespierre

When the date was June 1794, there was significant national fatigue due to the still

mounting executions. Especially with the approval of the Law of Prairial 22, the number of

deaths rocketed up. Besides, Paris was shaking with rumours against Robespierre and also his

leadership position within the COPS. An atmosphere full of tension was already in control since

both the members from COPS and COGS felt a significant amount of fear that they would also

become one of Robespierre’s victims- sooner or later. In mid-June, Robespierre became

extremely ill because of the fatigue from the last two years of leading COPS and the Terror. He

retired into seclusion and barely attended to the Convention as well as to the sessions of COPS.

This withdrawal encouraged the frustrated members, and they started to spread conspiracies as a

157 Law of 22 Prairial. Accessed March, 2019. http://www.columbia.edu/~iw6/docs/22debate.html.158 Ibid.

first step to decrease his psychologically destructing effect on others. There were also some

members who gave speeches openly criticising Robespierre’s decisions as well as his rage, most

importantly the escalating speed of Reign of Terror. An against campaign was already started

which demanded his removal when he came back. But to gain enough support for this, anti-

Robespierreists had to gain support from Jacobins too as he had his most significant popularity

there. For Convention to remove him, the consensus was needed, and Robespierre came back to

his professional life in late July.159

On 26th of July, (8 Thermidor according to the Republican calendar) Robespierre

delivered a long speech in the Convention where he denied all of the accusations upon him. He

also accused some members within the Convention with treason but never gave any names. On 9

Thermidor, Saint-Just tried to defend him in his speeches, but other deputies silenced him.

Robespierre tried to address the chamber, but his strongest allies Montagnards cut him short by

barracking. At the end of the session, a motion for the arrest of Robespierre, Saint-Just, Couthon,

Hanriot was raised and passed with a simple majority from the Convention.160

Figure 21. Arrest of Robespierre161

Robespierre and his followers were sent to prison. His best ally, Paris Commune escaped

him to Hôtel de Ville where Robespierre thought of regaining his power, but it seemed

impossible since the Commune was not as firm as they were in the past due to rapid deaths etc.

At 2.00 AM soldiers raid the hotel, although Robespierre tried to kill himself by a gun he only

159 "Execution of Robespierre." Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/3073.160 Ibid.161 O'Brien, Laura. "Review: A People's History of the French Revolution, by Eric Hazan." The Irish Times. March 22, 2015. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review-a-people-s-history-of-the-french-revolution-by-eric-hazan-1.2145966.

59

shot himself in the jaw. Moreover, in the next morning on 10 Thermidor, with his closest

supporters, 36-year-old Robespierre was guillotined. This final execution resembled the end of

Reign of Terror period.

B. Aftermath

During the years of 1794-1795, at least 300,000 French citizens were arrested with

different reasons, 17,000 of them were guillotined, and another 10,000 died in prisons without a

trial. However, historians estimate much more than these numbers as unrecorded murders also

exist.162 There were also political, social and economic outcomes of the past two years. The

Reign of Terror created the conscripted army which saved France from invasion for an extended

period but also destabilised the country; which neutralised the gains.

A lot of historical and vital buildings were destructed and French economy started to lose

its power due to the unstable political situation. Inflation, unemployment and starvation were at

its maximum and various industries got severely affected by all these events. Also, French got

into a number of wars with neighbouring countries since

Revolutionaries tried to spread their ideas to their countries to

Majority of nobles and clergyman self-exiled themselves to other

countries. Nearly all political parties were finished since all of

their leaders laid under guillotine and Republicanism started to

rise throughout France- which also affected the next government

in the following years.163 All in all, the period of Reign of Terror

showed the world how acting in extreme ends could change a

nation’s future and how it may create, massive disasters.

Figure 22. Execution of Robespierre164

162 "Robespierre Overthrown in France." History.com. February 09, 2010. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/robespierre-overthrown-in-france.163 Ibid 164 "Maximilien Robespierre." French Revolution. August 28, 2018. Accessed March, 2019. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/maximilien-robespierre/.

60

shot himself in the jaw. Moreover, in the next morning on 10 Thermidor, with his closest

supporters, 36-year-old Robespierre was guillotined. This final execution resembled the end of

Reign of Terror period.

B. Aftermath

During the years of 1794-1795, at least 300,000 French citizens were arrested with

different reasons, 17,000 of them were guillotined, and another 10,000 died in prisons without a

trial. However, historians estimate much more than these numbers as unrecorded murders also

exist.162 There were also political, social and economic outcomes of the past two years. The

Reign of Terror created the conscripted army which saved France from invasion for an extended

period but also destabilised the country; which neutralised the gains.

A lot of historical and vital buildings were destructed and French economy started to lose

its power due to the unstable political situation. Inflation, unemployment and starvation were at

its maximum and various industries got severely affected by all these events. Also, French got

into a number of wars with neighbouring countries since

Revolutionaries tried to spread their ideas to their countries to

Majority of nobles and clergyman self-exiled themselves to other

countries. Nearly all political parties were finished since all of

their leaders laid under guillotine and Republicanism started to

rise throughout France- which also affected the next government

in the following years.163 All in all, the period of Reign of Terror

showed the world how acting in extreme ends could change a

nation’s future and how it may create, massive disasters.

Figure 22. Execution of Robespierre164

162 "Robespierre Overthrown in France." History.com. February 09, 2010. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/robespierre-overthrown-in-france.163 Ibid 164 "Maximilien Robespierre." French Revolution. August 28, 2018. Accessed March, 2019. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/maximilien-robespierre/.

C. Problems to be addressed

(Starting date: September, 1793)

1. Authority clashes between Committee of Public Safety (COPS) and Committee of

General Security (COGS), what are the limits of their powers?

2. How can their scope be defined, under what conditions? Will National Convention be

involved? How?

3. What are the main scope of the differences between two committees?

4. What principles should be set during the period of deciding and conducting new foreign

policies?

5. Will Revolutionary Tribunal enlarge its power through time? What are the new

regulations that could be made?

6. What kind of consequences will the Law of Maximum bring for the economy of

France, how can its disadvantageous results be minimized?

7. What precautions should be taken physically or legally in order to soothe attacks from

counter-Revolutionaries?

8. In order to hold authority and power at hand, what kind of new Laws could be

discussed and passed?

9. How can social life be reorganized according to the needs of both Committees?

10. Which steps should be taken in order to combat attacks from other countries which

still carry the old regime?

11. Will there be any amendments to the Law of 22 Prairial? How can two committees

find the same ground- or not?

61

62

D. Bibliography

"1871: The Paris Commune." Libcom.org. Accessed March,

2019.https://libcom.org/history/1871-the-paris-commune.

"Bastille Liberty Painting Day." Cell Code RSS. Accessed March,

2019.https://cellcode.us/quotes/bastille-liberty-painting-day.html.

"BBC - History - King Louis XV". 2018.

BBC.http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/louis_xv.sht.

"David P.Jordan. The Kings Trial: The French Revolution vs. Louis XVI. Berkeley and

Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1979." The American Historical Review, 1980.

doi:10.1086/ahr/85.5.1204-a.

"Declaration of the Rights of Man Andd Citizen." Declaration of the Rights of Man Andd

Citizen. Accessed March, 2019. http://www.columbia.edu/~iw6/docs/dec1793.html.

"Decree of the National Assembly Abolishing the Feudal System, 11 August 1789."

Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/281.

"Duke of Brunswick." French Revolution. June 11, 2018. Accessed March 19,

2019.https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/duke-of-brunswick/.

"ExecutedToday.com." ExecutedToday.com » 1793: The Girondists. Accessed March,

2019. http://www.executedtoday.com/2008/10/31/1793-girondins-girondists-pierre-vergniaud/.

"Execution of Marie Antoinette (16 October 1793) at the Place De La Révolution."

Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--

equality--fraternity/item/2827.

"Execution of Robespierre." Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019.

http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/3073.

"Figures in a Revolution: Jacques-René Hébert & the Sans-Culottes." General History.

August 02, 2012. Accessed March, 2019. http://general-history.com/figures-in-a-revolution-

jacques-rene-hebert-the-sans-culottes/.

"French Revolution." OpenLearn. Accessed March,

2019.https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/history-art/french-

revolution/content-section-4.5.

63

"Herodote.net." L'Incorruptible - Herodote.net. February 06, 2019. Accessed March,

2019.https://www.herodote.net/Robespierre_1758_1794_-synthese-224.php

"Historical Milestone: The Execution of Louis XVI." Origins. Accessed March 19,

2019.http://origins.osu.edu/milestones/january-2018-execution-louis-xvi.

"History - Historic Figures: Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794)." BBC. Accessed

March, 2019.http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/robespierre_maximilien.shtml.

"Inside a Revolutionary Committee during the Reign of Terror." Omeka RSS. Accessed

March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--

fraternity/item/2752.

"Jacobin Club Photos and Images." Jacobin Club Photos and Images | Age Fotostock.

Accessed March, 2019. https://www.agefotostock.com/age/en/Stock-Images/jacobin-club.html.

"July 2014: Storming the Bastille (July 14, 1789) | Origins: Current Events in Historical

Perspective." Origins. Accessed March, 2019. http://origins.osu.edu/milestones/july-2014-

storming-bastille.

"King Louis XVI Executed." History.com. February 09, 2010. Accessed March, 2019.

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/king-louis-xvi-executed.

"Louis XVI's Flight from Paris." History Today. Accessed March,

2019.https://www.historytoday.com/archive/months-past/louis-xvis-flight-paris.

"Maximilien Robespierre." French Revolution. August 28, 2018. Accessed March, 2019.

https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/maximilien-robespierre/.

"Reason · Liberty, Equality, Fraternity". 2018.

Chnm.Gmu.Edu.http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/1.

"Revolutionary Tribunals." French Revolution. June 01, 2018. Accessed March,

2019.https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/revolutionary-tribunals/.

"Robespierre (3 December 1792)." Omeka RSS. Accessed March,

2019.http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/3187.

"Robespierre Overthrown in France." History.com. February 09, 2010. Accessed March,

2019. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/robespierre-overthrown-in-france.

64

"Herodote.net." L'Incorruptible - Herodote.net. February 06, 2019. Accessed March,

2019.https://www.herodote.net/Robespierre_1758_1794_-synthese-224.php

"Historical Milestone: The Execution of Louis XVI." Origins. Accessed March 19,

2019.http://origins.osu.edu/milestones/january-2018-execution-louis-xvi.

"History - Historic Figures: Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794)." BBC. Accessed

March, 2019.http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/robespierre_maximilien.shtml.

"Inside a Revolutionary Committee during the Reign of Terror." Omeka RSS. Accessed

March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--

fraternity/item/2752.

"Jacobin Club Photos and Images." Jacobin Club Photos and Images | Age Fotostock.

Accessed March, 2019. https://www.agefotostock.com/age/en/Stock-Images/jacobin-club.html.

"July 2014: Storming the Bastille (July 14, 1789) | Origins: Current Events in Historical

Perspective." Origins. Accessed March, 2019. http://origins.osu.edu/milestones/july-2014-

storming-bastille.

"King Louis XVI Executed." History.com. February 09, 2010. Accessed March, 2019.

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/king-louis-xvi-executed.

"Louis XVI's Flight from Paris." History Today. Accessed March,

2019.https://www.historytoday.com/archive/months-past/louis-xvis-flight-paris.

"Maximilien Robespierre." French Revolution. August 28, 2018. Accessed March, 2019.

https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/maximilien-robespierre/.

"Reason · Liberty, Equality, Fraternity". 2018.

Chnm.Gmu.Edu.http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/1.

"Revolutionary Tribunals." French Revolution. June 01, 2018. Accessed March,

2019.https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/revolutionary-tribunals/.

"Robespierre (3 December 1792)." Omeka RSS. Accessed March,

2019.http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/3187.

"Robespierre Overthrown in France." History.com. February 09, 2010. Accessed March,

2019. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/robespierre-overthrown-in-france.

"Siege of the Tuileries." Omeka RSS. Accessed March,

2019.http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/2721.

"The Civil Constitution of the Clergy." French Revolution. June 16, 2018. Accessed

March, 2019. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/civil-constitution-of-the-clergy/.

"The Civil Constitution of the Clergy." French Revolution. June 16, 2018. Accessed

March, 2019. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/civil-constitution-of-the-clergy/.

"The French And Indian War Ends". 2018. HISTORY. https://www.history.com/this-day-

in-history/the-french-and-indian-war-ends.

"The French Revolution and the Catholic Church." History Today. Accessed March,

2019.https://www.historytoday.com/archive/french-revolution-and-catholic-church.

"The Girondins and Montagnards." French Revolution. June 01, 2018. Accessed March,

2019.https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/girondins-and-montagnards/.

"The Hall of the Convention." Educational Technology Clearinghouse. Accessed March,

2019. https://etc.usf.edu/clipart/80000/80079/80079_convention.htm

"The Law of Suspects." Omeka RSS. Accessed March, 2019.

http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/3094

"The Maximum." Omeka RSS. Accessed March,

2019.http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/3096.

"The Tennis Court Oath at Versailles by Jacques–Louis David." Omeka RSS. Accessed

March, 2019. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/633.

"The Tennis Court Oath, Versailles, 1789." The British Library - The British Library.

April 05, 2006. Accessed March 19,

2019.http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/utopia/revolution1/tennis1/tennis.html.

"The Vendée Wars." In The Vendée. Accessed March, 2019.

https://inthevendee.com/tourism-leisure/the-vendee-wars/.

"Vendée Wars." Poitou Charentes Vendée. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.poitou-

charentes-vendee.com/the-vendee/history/vendee-wars/.

"War in the Vendée." Wikiwand. Accessed March,

2019.http://www.wikiwand.com/en/War_in_the_Vendée

65

Akg-Images. "Closure of the Jacobin Club, in the Course of the Night of 27/28 June."

Akg. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.akg-images.co.uk/archive/Closure-of-the-Jacobin-

Club--in-the-course-of-the-night-of-27-28-June-2UMDHUW8S4CP.html.

Alison, F. "Review. Le Groupe De Coppet. Actes Et Documents Du Deuxieme Colloque

De Coppet, 10-13 Juillet 1974." French Studies 32, no. 1 (1978): 83. doi:10.1093/fs/32.1.83.

Andress, David. The Oxford Handbook of the French Revolution. New York: Oxford

University Press, 2015

Arneson, Richard. "Egalitarianism." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. April 24,

2013. Accessed March, 2019. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/egalitarianism/.

Assembly, France. National Constituent. "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the

Citizen Adopted by the National Assembly during Its Sessions on August 20, 21, 25 and 26,

1789, and Approved by the King." WDL RSS. January 01, 1789. Accessed March,

2019.https://www.wdl.org/en/item/14430/.

Barton, H. A. "The Origins of the Brunswick Manifesto." French Historical Studies 5, no.

2 (1967): 146. doi:10.2307/286173.

Béricourt, and Dessinateur. "Vive La Montagne ; Vive La République Une Et Indivisible :

[dessin] / [Béricourt]." Gallica. January 01, 1793. Accessed March, 2019.

https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b84121521.item.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "French Republican Calendar." Encyclopædia

Britannica. July 15, 2014. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/science/French-

republican-calendar.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Girondin." Encyclopædia Britannica. June 30,

2017. Accessed March 19, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Girondin.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Wars of the Vendée." Encyclopædia

Britannica. March 31, 2016. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/event/Wars-of-

the-Vendee.

Burke, Edmund. 1958. Reflections On The Revolution In France. London: Oxford

University Press.

66

Akg-Images. "Closure of the Jacobin Club, in the Course of the Night of 27/28 June."

Akg. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.akg-images.co.uk/archive/Closure-of-the-Jacobin-

Club--in-the-course-of-the-night-of-27-28-June-2UMDHUW8S4CP.html.

Alison, F. "Review. Le Groupe De Coppet. Actes Et Documents Du Deuxieme Colloque

De Coppet, 10-13 Juillet 1974." French Studies 32, no. 1 (1978): 83. doi:10.1093/fs/32.1.83.

Andress, David. The Oxford Handbook of the French Revolution. New York: Oxford

University Press, 2015

Arneson, Richard. "Egalitarianism." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. April 24,

2013. Accessed March, 2019. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/egalitarianism/.

Assembly, France. National Constituent. "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the

Citizen Adopted by the National Assembly during Its Sessions on August 20, 21, 25 and 26,

1789, and Approved by the King." WDL RSS. January 01, 1789. Accessed March,

2019.https://www.wdl.org/en/item/14430/.

Barton, H. A. "The Origins of the Brunswick Manifesto." French Historical Studies 5, no.

2 (1967): 146. doi:10.2307/286173.

Béricourt, and Dessinateur. "Vive La Montagne ; Vive La République Une Et Indivisible :

[dessin] / [Béricourt]." Gallica. January 01, 1793. Accessed March, 2019.

https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b84121521.item.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "French Republican Calendar." Encyclopædia

Britannica. July 15, 2014. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/science/French-

republican-calendar.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Girondin." Encyclopædia Britannica. June 30,

2017. Accessed March 19, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Girondin.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Wars of the Vendée." Encyclopædia

Britannica. March 31, 2016. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/event/Wars-of-

the-Vendee.

Burke, Edmund. 1958. Reflections On The Revolution In France. London: Oxford

University Press.

Darrow, Margaret H. "Economic Terror in the City: The General Maximum in

Montauban." French Historical Studies 17, no. 2 (1991): 498. doi:10.2307/286467

Davidson, Ian. The French Revolution: From Enlightenment to Tyranny. New York:

Pegasus Books, 2018.

Dean, Rodney J. "L’Assemblée Constituante Et La Réforme Ecclésiastique,." H-France

Review 15, no. 96. https://www.h-france.net/vol15reviews/vol15no96fitzsimmons.pdf.

Dipadova, Theodore A. "The Girondins and the Question of Revolutionary Government."

French Historical Studies 9, no. 3 (1976): 432. doi:10.2307/286230.

Doyle, William. 2013. Origins Of The French Revolution. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford Univ.

Press.

Dwyer, Philip G., and Peter McPhee. The French Revolution and Napoleon: A

Sourcebook. London: Routledge, 2006.

Eccnes, William John. 2018. "Seven Years War | The Canadian Encyclopedia". The

Canadian Encylopedia. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/seven-years-war

Foreign Affairs, Ministry of European. 2018. "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity". France

Diplomatie :: Ministry For Europe And Foreign Affairs.

https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/coming-to-france/france-facts/symbols-of-the-

republic/article/liberty-equality-fraternity.

Furet, Francois, Mona Ozouf, and Arthur Goldhammer. A Critical Dictionary of the

French Revolution. Cambridge (Massachusetts): Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,

1989.

Gilbert, Adrian. "Battle of Valmy." Encyclopædia Britannica. September 13, 2018.

Accessed March, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Valmy.

Gliozzo, Charles A. "The Philosophes and Religion: Intellectual Origins of the

Dechristianization Movement in the French Revolution." Church History 40, no. 03 (1971): 273.

doi:10.2307/3163003.

Hanke, Eigil. 2018. "Liberty, Equality And Fraternity In The French Revolution".

Dandebat.Dk.http://www.dandebat.dk/eng-hellig4.htm.

Hanson, Paul R. A to Z of the French Revolution. Scarecrow Press, 2007.

67

Heller, Henry. The Bourgeois Revolution in France, 1789-1815. New York: Berghahn

Books, 2009

Higgonet, Patrice. "The Social and Cultural Antecedents of Revolutionary Discontinuity:

Montagnards and Girondins." The English Historical Review C, no. CCCXCVI (1985): 513-44.

doi:10.1093/ehr/c.cccxcvi.513.

Higonnet, Patrice Louis-René, and Gordon Wright. "France." Encyclopædia Britannica.

March, 2019. Accessed March 19, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/France/Girondins-

and-Montagnards.

History, State. 2018. "Milestones: 1750–1775 - Office Of The Historian".

History.State.Gov.https://history.state.gov/milestones/1750-1775/french-indian-war.

Isoni, Alessandro. "‘Fonder La République’. The French National Convention and the

Revolutionary Government (1793–94)." Parliaments, Estates and Representation 34, no. 1

(2014): 40-54. doi:10.1080/02606755.2014.893715.

Israel, Jonathan. 2014. "Revolutionary Ideas: An Intellectual History Of The French

Revolution". Institute For Advanced Study. https://www.ias.edu/ideas/2014/israel-revolutionary-

ideas.

James, Clive, Treble Zanda, Lan Bui, Pattie Reddy, Nicole Bossert-Desotell, and Rachel

Hammitt. "Committee Of Public Safety Art Print by Granger." Fine Art America. March, 2019.

Accessed March 19, 2019. https://fineartamerica.com/featured/committee-of-public-safety-

granger.html?product=art-print.

Kim, Minchul. "The Many Robespierres from 1794 to the Present." History of European

Ideas 41, no. 7 (2015): 992-96. doi:10.1080/01916599.2015.1029729.

Knutsen, John. 2018. "Popular Sovereignty".

Basiclaw.Net.http://www.basiclaw.net/Principles/Popular%20sovereignty.htm.

Kolla, Edward James. "The Union of Avignon and the Challenges of Self-Determination."

Sovereignty, International Law, and the French Revolution: 84-120.

Kreis, Smith. 2018. "The Origins Of The French Revolution".

Historyguide.org.http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture11a.html.

68

Heller, Henry. The Bourgeois Revolution in France, 1789-1815. New York: Berghahn

Books, 2009

Higgonet, Patrice. "The Social and Cultural Antecedents of Revolutionary Discontinuity:

Montagnards and Girondins." The English Historical Review C, no. CCCXCVI (1985): 513-44.

doi:10.1093/ehr/c.cccxcvi.513.

Higonnet, Patrice Louis-René, and Gordon Wright. "France." Encyclopædia Britannica.

March, 2019. Accessed March 19, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/France/Girondins-

and-Montagnards.

History, State. 2018. "Milestones: 1750–1775 - Office Of The Historian".

History.State.Gov.https://history.state.gov/milestones/1750-1775/french-indian-war.

Isoni, Alessandro. "‘Fonder La République’. The French National Convention and the

Revolutionary Government (1793–94)." Parliaments, Estates and Representation 34, no. 1

(2014): 40-54. doi:10.1080/02606755.2014.893715.

Israel, Jonathan. 2014. "Revolutionary Ideas: An Intellectual History Of The French

Revolution". Institute For Advanced Study. https://www.ias.edu/ideas/2014/israel-revolutionary-

ideas.

James, Clive, Treble Zanda, Lan Bui, Pattie Reddy, Nicole Bossert-Desotell, and Rachel

Hammitt. "Committee Of Public Safety Art Print by Granger." Fine Art America. March, 2019.

Accessed March 19, 2019. https://fineartamerica.com/featured/committee-of-public-safety-

granger.html?product=art-print.

Kim, Minchul. "The Many Robespierres from 1794 to the Present." History of European

Ideas 41, no. 7 (2015): 992-96. doi:10.1080/01916599.2015.1029729.

Knutsen, John. 2018. "Popular Sovereignty".

Basiclaw.Net.http://www.basiclaw.net/Principles/Popular%20sovereignty.htm.

Kolla, Edward James. "The Union of Avignon and the Challenges of Self-Determination."

Sovereignty, International Law, and the French Revolution: 84-120.

Kreis, Smith. 2018. "The Origins Of The French Revolution".

Historyguide.org.http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture11a.html.

La Vopa, Anthony J. 1992. "Conceiving A Public: Ideas And Society In Eighteenth-

Century Europecritique And Crisis: Enlightenment And The Pathogenesis Of Modern Society.".

The Journal Of Modern History 64 (1): 79-116. doi:10.1086/244442.

Levasseur, E. "The Assignats: A Study in the Finances of the French Revolution." Journal

of Political Economy 2, no. 2 (1894): 179-202. doi:10.1086/250201.

Lewis, Gwynne. Beyond the Terror: Essays in French Regional and Social History 1794-

1815. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Linder, Doug. The Trials of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette (1792 & 1793):

Bibliography and Selected Links. Accessed March,

2019.http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/louis/louisxvilinks.html.

Llewellyn, Jennifer, and Steve Thompson. 2018. "Taxation As A Cause Of Revolution".

French Revolution. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/taxation/.

Llewellyn, Jennifer. 2018. "The Ideas Of The French Revolution". French

Revolution.https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/revolutionary-ideas/.

Loflin, Lewis. "Cult of Reason and Robespierre." Cult of Reason and Robespierre.

Accessed March 19, 2019. http://www.sullivan-county.com/identity/shanda.htm.

Luna, Frederick A. De. "The "Girondins" Were Girondins, after All." French Historical

Studies 15, no. 3 (1988): 506. doi:10.2307/286372.

Mantin, Peter. The French Revolution. Oxford: Heinemann Library, 1994.

Maximilien Robespierre, Master of the Terror. Accessed March,

2019.http://people.loyno.edu/~history/journal/1983-4/mcletchie.htm.

Mcphee, Peter. "Electoral Democracy and Direct Democracy in France 1789-1851."

European History Quarterly 16, no. 1 (1986): 77-96. doi:10.1177/026569148601600104.

Munro, André. "The 12 Months of the French Republican Calendar." Encyclopædia

Britannica. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/list/the-12-months-of-the-french-

republican-calendar.

Netcomposant. "Banknotes Assignats Assignat. 2 000 Francs. 18 Nivôse an 3. Signature :

Gomez." Poinsignon Numismatique. Accessed March, 2019. https://www.poinsignon-

numismatique.com/banknotes_r1/assignats_c4555/2-000-francs_p5394/assignat-2-000-francs-18-

nivose-an-3-signature-gomez_article_37368.html.

69

O'Brien, Laura. "Review: A People's History of the French Revolution, by Eric Hazan."

The Irish Times. March 22, 2015. Accessed March, 2019.

https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review-a-people-s-history-of-the-french-revolution-by-

eric-hazan-1.2145966

Palmer, R. R. "Fifty Years of the Committee of Public Safety." The Journal of Modern

History 13, no. 3 (1941): 375-97. doi:10.1086/236544

Plack, Noelle. 2018. "Liberty, Equality And Taxation: Wine In The French Revolution".

Academia.Edu.http://www.academia.edu/3078620/Liberty_Equality_and_Taxation_Wine_in_the

_French_Revolution.

Robinson, James Harvey. "The Tennis Court Oath." Political Science Quarterly 10, no. 3

(1895): 460. doi:10.2307/2139955.

Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French

Revolution and Napoleon." Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18, no. 4 (1988): 771.

doi:10.2307/204824.

Rothman, Stanley, Maurice Duverger, Barbara North, and Robert North. "The French

Political System." American Sociological Review 23, no. 5 (1958): 598. doi:10.2307/2088927.

Skocpol, Theda, and Meyer Kestnbaum. "The French Revolution in World-Historical

Perspective." The French Revolution and the Birth of Modernity. Accessed March,

2019.https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft2h4nb1h9&chunk.id=d0e216&toc

.id=&brand=ucpress.

Thiers, Adolphe, and Frederic Shoberl. The History of the French Revolution. New York:

Scribner and Welford, 1881

Toma, Peter A., Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes, and M. Blondel. 1964. "What Is The Third

Estate?". The Western Political Quarterly 17 (4): 12. doi:10.2307/444932.

Trial of Louis XVI. Late King of France; by the National Convention, at Several

Adjourned Sittings. Translated from the French. Accessed March,

2019.https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/evans/N19556.0001.001/1:3?rgn=div1;view.

Unwin, Timothy. "Reviews." French Studies XLVIII, no. 4 (1994).

doi:10.1093/fs/xlviii.4.472-b.

70

O'Brien, Laura. "Review: A People's History of the French Revolution, by Eric Hazan."

The Irish Times. March 22, 2015. Accessed March, 2019.

https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review-a-people-s-history-of-the-french-revolution-by-

eric-hazan-1.2145966

Palmer, R. R. "Fifty Years of the Committee of Public Safety." The Journal of Modern

History 13, no. 3 (1941): 375-97. doi:10.1086/236544

Plack, Noelle. 2018. "Liberty, Equality And Taxation: Wine In The French Revolution".

Academia.Edu.http://www.academia.edu/3078620/Liberty_Equality_and_Taxation_Wine_in_the

_French_Revolution.

Robinson, James Harvey. "The Tennis Court Oath." Political Science Quarterly 10, no. 3

(1895): 460. doi:10.2307/2139955.

Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French

Revolution and Napoleon." Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18, no. 4 (1988): 771.

doi:10.2307/204824.

Rothman, Stanley, Maurice Duverger, Barbara North, and Robert North. "The French

Political System." American Sociological Review 23, no. 5 (1958): 598. doi:10.2307/2088927.

Skocpol, Theda, and Meyer Kestnbaum. "The French Revolution in World-Historical

Perspective." The French Revolution and the Birth of Modernity. Accessed March,

2019.https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft2h4nb1h9&chunk.id=d0e216&toc

.id=&brand=ucpress.

Thiers, Adolphe, and Frederic Shoberl. The History of the French Revolution. New York:

Scribner and Welford, 1881

Toma, Peter A., Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes, and M. Blondel. 1964. "What Is The Third

Estate?". The Western Political Quarterly 17 (4): 12. doi:10.2307/444932.

Trial of Louis XVI. Late King of France; by the National Convention, at Several

Adjourned Sittings. Translated from the French. Accessed March,

2019.https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/evans/N19556.0001.001/1:3?rgn=div1;view.

Unwin, Timothy. "Reviews." French Studies XLVIII, no. 4 (1994).

doi:10.1093/fs/xlviii.4.472-b.

Winch, Donald. 2018. "Intellectual Repercussions Of The French Revolution".

Intellectual History 1 (1): 1-12.

71