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Human Resource Management (UNIT – IV) TYBMS (SEM - V)

DEFINATION OF PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT:-

According to KEITH DAVIS :-“P articipation refers to the mental and emotional involvement of a person in a group situation which encourages him to contribute to group goals and share in the responsibility of achieving them.”

When subordinates are involved in decision making at all levels the resultant concept is participative management.

There are 3 groups of managerial decisions that have a direct impact on employee behaviour. They are social, economic and personnel decisions.

Economic decisions include financial aspects- the methods of manufacturing, shut down, lay offs, mergers and other similar functions.

Personnel decisions refer to employee hiring, promotions, demotions, transfers, job design and the like.

Social decisions relate to hours of work, welfare measures, safety and health.

Participation by employees is effected through several methods like:-

1. Participation at the board level.2. Participation through share ownership.3. Participation through joint councils, committees and work councils.4. Participation through collective bargaining.5. Participation through job enlargement and job enrichment.6. Participation through quality circles.7. Participation through empowered teams.

The main benefit of participative management is that employees is that the employee identifies himself/herself with the job and organization and this leads to improve motivation and enhanced task performance. Participation leads to reduced conflict and stress, more commitment to goals, better acceptance of change and improved communication.

Prof. Tahereem Bardi 1


LEVELS OF PARTICIPATION:-

Under participative management, workers are associated with the management i.e. decision making process at different levels. The nature of association and the coverage of decisions are different at different levels. Such participation in through the representatives of workers. Normally, the levels of participation are three. These are as noted below:

(A) PARTICIPATION AT THE SHOP FLOOR LEVEL

(B) PARTICIPTION AT THE PLANT LEVEL.

(C) PARTICIPTION AT CORPORATE LEVEL/ENTERPRISE LEVEL

(A)PARTICIPATION AT THE SHOP FLOOR LEVEL:-

Actual production activity is conducted by workers at the shop floor. Here, participative management is possible through works committees in which workers elect their representatives. In such matters committee meetings relating to day to day working/functioning at the shop floor level are discussed and joint decisions are taken.

Such committees are concerned with following matters:

1. Conditions of work (lightning, ventilation, sanitation etc) and amenities such as drinking water, canteens, medical and health services etc.

2. safety and accident prevention3. adjustment of festival and national holidays4. administration of welfare fund, educational and recreational activities5. promotion of thrift and savings, and6. Review of decisions arrived in the meetings of works committees.

Regular meetings of works committees enable workers to get their day to day problems solved promptly. For this, meetings of committees should be arranged regularly and constructive decisions should be taken. In India, such committees are not functioning properly at the shop floor level.

(B)PARTICIPATION AT THE PLANT LEVEL:-

JOINT MANAGEMENT COUNCILS (JMCs) function as consultative agency at the plant level. JMCs are concerned with the activities at the plant level. JMC, equal representation is given to management and workers. The maximum membership of JMC is 12. JMC is necessary where five hundred or more workers are employed. JMC performs functions on the following matters:



1. to deal with matters such as accident prevention at plant level, management of canteens, water, meals, issue and revision of work rules, indiscipline, training, absenteeism and so on.

2. To receive information, to discuss and to give suggestions on production and marketing programmes, methods of production, general economic situation, state of the market and so on.

3. To have consultations with JMC before introducing changes in the modes of production, production schedule, general administration problems and so on. Wages, bonus, individual grievances of workers, personal problems of workers ad matters of collective bargaining are outside the scope of JMCs. The performance of JMCs is not satisfactory in INDIA due to the attitude of workers’ representatives, trade unions leadership and negative attitude of managers.

In 1975, another scheme of participative management was introduced in India. Under this new scheme, at the shop floor levels, SHOP COUNCILS were to be set up and at the plant level, JOINT COUNCILS were to be set up. In 1977, the scheme was extended to public sector units employing 100 or more persons.

(C)PARTICIPATION AT THE CORPORATE LEVEL:-

This is participative management at the highest level. Here, the board of directors is the apex body in the administration and decision making at the corporate level. The representatives of workers are taken on the board of directors. He looks after the protection of interest of workers. This also improves employer-employee relations and ensures higher productivity. The workers’ representative can play a useful role in safeguarding the interest of workers. He can guide the management on personnel and social functions. He can even suggest the management not to take certain policy decisions and measures that would be unpopular with the employees. Representatives of workers can also suggest to the board, certain schemes which will motivate workers to take more interest in the work and will also prove useful for cordial labor management relations over a longer period.

Participation through workers representative on the Board of Directors is, now introduced in many public sectors enterprises and banks. Participative management at the corporate level is not effective in India. This is because for various reasons. The Board, FOR EXAMPLE, deals with variety of subjects and personnel matters does not receive much attention at the board level. The workers representatives on the board are in minority whereas decisions taken in the board are by the majority. The representative of workers on the board have many limitations due to educational background, etc. such director may not be able to play a constructive role



Forms of PARTICIPATION:

There are 3 groups which impacts on workers; namely social, personnel and economic decisions. But there is a difference of opinion about the scope and the extent to which workers can participate in social, personnel and economic decisions.

In practice, however participation of workers is affected by any or all the methods described below:

Participation at Board Level: the Board of Directors is an apex body in the administration of a corporate establishment. The workers’ representative on a Board can play a useful role in safeguarding in the interest of workers. They can serve as a control element and can prevail the top management not to take measures which are unpopular with employees and employee benefit scheme. But the participation of workers at the top-level management is not without its problem. The Board of any enterprise is primarily concerned with such problems as raising funds, utilization of the resources of the company to its advantage, ensuring the capital growth of the enterprise.

Participation through Ownership: Workers may become involved in the industry by making them shareholders of the company. This may be done by introducing them to buy equity shares. They may also promote the scheme by allowing the workers to make payments in installments. Advance loan or even financial assistance to such workers to enable them to buy equity shares, is possible. Participation through ownership has a distinct advantage of making the worker committed to the job and to the organization.

Participation through Complete Control: Workers acquire complete control of the management through elected boards. Self-management gives complete control to the workers to manage directly all aspects of industries through their representatives. Industrial disputes disappear when workers develop loyalty to the organization. Trade unions welcome this kind of participation.

Participation through Staff or Works Councils: Staff councils or work councils are bodies on which the representation is entirely of the employees. There may be one council for entire organization or a hierarchy of work councils. The councils have different functions in the management of an enterprise. They are right step in the direction of industrial democracy. But they are not



successful because of the fear expressed by trade union leaders that, being mainly workers’ bodies; staff councils may erode their power and prestige.

Participation through Joint Councils & Committees: Joint councils are body’s representatives of employees and employers. The functions of these bodies may range from the decision making on some issues to merely advising the management as consultative bodies. These councils provide no useful purpose. They only provide a platform to employees and employers from which they may give free vent to their complaints and grievances without making any attempt to find remedies and solutions.

Participation through Collective Bargaining: The principle of collective bargaining confers on the management and the workers the right, through collective agreements to lay down certain rules for the formulation and termination of the contract of the employment, as well as the conditions of service in an establishment. Collective bargaining can really work well if the bargaining parties, namely, the employers and workers’ representatives, make use of the opportunity for bargaining in the right spirit and for the positive purpose.

Participation through Job Enlargement and Job Enrichment: Job enlargement means expanding the job content – adding task elements horizontally. Job Enrichment means that additional motivators are added to the job so that it’s more rewarding. The purpose is to relieve employees from boredom which in turn creates achieving job satisfaction.

Participation through Suggestion Scheme: Employees’ views on such matters such as machine utilization, waste management, energy conservation and safety measures are invited and reward is given for the best suggestion. This procedure enables the management to arouse and maintain the employee’s interest in the problems of their concern. Toyota and Satyam are examples that are benefited from the suggestion scheme



Participation through Quality Circles: Quality Circle spread all over the world in early 1960’s. in our country too, they are being introduced in several companies. BHEL, Alfa Laval, Mahindra and Godrej & Boyce are practicing QC. Here, employees are involved in the decision making. Most QCs begin with a great deal of training in identifying work problems, applying statistics to track and evaluate quality and work together in a group.

Empowered Teams: Empowering refers to passing on the authority and responsibility. Empowerment occurs when power goes to employees who then experience a sense of ownership and control over their jobs. Empowered individuals know that their jobs belong to them.

PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT through:

Participation through Quality Circles:

A quality circle (QC) consists of seven to ten people from the same work area who meet regularly to define, analyse, and solve quality and related problems in their area. Membership is strictly voluntary, and meetings are usually held once a week, for an hour. During the groups initial meetings, members are trained in problem- solving techniques borrowed from group dynamics, industrial engineering and quality control.

Quality circles are credited with producing quick, concrete and impressive results when correctly implemented. Their advantages include the following:

- Employees are involved in decision making. This privilege makes them acquire communication and analytical skills and improve the efficiency at the workplace.

- Savings-to-costs ratios generally are higher than those achieved with other productivity- improvement programmes.

- Because the programme is voluntary, employees and unions generally do not view them as another cost- control effort.

- Circle members enhance their chances of promotion to supervisory positions.



Started first in Japan in the early 60’s QC’s have spread all over the world. BHEL and BEL are the only two names which come to one’s memory.

Experience in Indian industries has been a mixed one. With Mahindra Jeeps Division (76 QC’s), the result has been favorable. Technical problems that had plagued the process since its inception were eight months after the first circle was formed. To several workers accustomed to thinking of work as a mindless routine, what happens on the shop floor is a welcome relief. They feel confident of themselves and gain satisfaction that they are being recognized.

On the flip side, it may be stated that unions have viewed QC’s as means of extracting labour. Qc’s give added power to the individual worker, not the union.

PHASES IN THE LIFE OF A QUALITY CIRCLE PROGARMME:

PHASE ACTIVITY DESTRUCTIVE FORCES

1) Start- up Publicise, obtain funds and volunteers, train

Low volunteer rate, inadequate funding, inability to learn group procrss and problem solving skills

2) Initial problem solving Identify and solve problems Disagreement on problems

3) Presentation and approval of initial suggestions

Present and have initial suggestion accepted

Resistant by staff groups and middle management, pooe presentation and suggestion s pf limited knowledge

4) Implementation of solutions

Relevant groups act on suggestions

Prohibitive, resistant by groups that must implement

5) Expansion and continued problem solving

Form new groups, old groups continue

Raised aspirations, lack of problems, expense of parallel organization, savings not realized, rewards wanted

6) Decline Fewer groups meet Cynicism about progeamme Burnout

This table shows the phase in the life of a QC and the problems encountered at each stage. Most QC’s have a definite life cycle, lasting from one to three years. Few circles operate beyond this time, either because they run out of steam or face simple problems. However, QC’s can be an excellent bridge between participative and non- participative management approaches.



EMPOWERED TEAMS:

Empowering refers to passing on authority and responsibility. Empowerment occurs when powers goes to employees who then experience a sense of ownership and control over their jobs.

Empowered individuals know that their jobs belong to them. Given a say on how things are done, employees feel more responsible. When they feel responsible, they show more initiative in their work, get more done, and enjoy their work more.

Empowerment is facilitated by a combination of factors, including values, leadership actions, job structure, and reward systems.

Self- directed teams (another name for empowered teams) have the following distinct features:

1) They are empowered to share various management and leadership functions.

2) They plan, control and improve their own work processes.

3) They set their own goals and inspect their own work.

4) They often create their own schedules and review their performance as a group.

5) They may prepare their own budgets and co- ordinate their work with other departments.

6) They usually order materials, keep inventories and deal with suppliers.

7) They are frequently responsible for acquiring any new training they might need.

8) They may hire their own replacement or assume responsibility for disciplining their own members.

9) They, and not others outside the team, take responsibility for the quality of their products or services.

Fig :-Facilitators of Empowered Teams


Organizational Values/ Leadership Action

Human Resource Systems (e.g. Rewards, Training)

Organizational Structural Job Design

Empowerment

Continuous Improveme-nt Actions

1) Competitive Qlty

2) Productivity


Factor Essential Successful Participative management:-

To make any of the participative methods successful, the following conditions have to be fulfilled:

1. The participants, namely, the management and operatives, must have clearly defined and completely defined and complementary objectives. And objectives of one party should not work at cross-purposes with the objectives of the other party

2. There must be a free flow in information and communication between the management and the workers. In this way, distrust and suspicion are avoided, and role in workers become responsible and mature when they discuss their demands with the management

3. The representatives of workers must be drawn from the workers themselves. The participation of outside trade union leaders should be discouraged. This is necessary because the problems and difficulties of the workers are better understood by the workers themselves than by others. The workers, therefore can put across their points of views a major role to the management with confidence

4. Strong and effective trade unionism is necessary for the success of participative management. Politicization and multiplicity of trade unions defeat the purpose of participation and managements

5. Worker’s education and training make a significant contribution to the purpose working of participative management. Trade unions and governments can play a major and meaningful role in organizing and conducting training programmes .

6. Neither party should feel that its position is threatened by participation. If workers think that their status will be adversely affected, they will not participate. If managers feel that their authority is threatened, they will refuse participation or will be on a defensive.

7. Consultative bodies, collective bargaining and suggestion schemes make a mockery of participative management. To make workers’ participation meaningful and purposeful, workers should be associated at all levels of decision making.

8. The success of participation depends on a suitable participative structure and a change of heart on the part of employers and employees, which may take a long time to develop. To expedite this development, some sort of legislative action is necessary.

9. There could be the danger of a major portion of the resources of the enterprises being diverted to workers without much consideration for further investments. It may be desirable to reserve a certain percentage of the resources for reinvestment, either through mutual agreement or legislation.



10. The financial cost of participation should not exceed the values, economic and otherwise, that come from it. Employees cannot spend all their time in participation, to the exclusion of all other workers



QUESTIONS ON PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT

1. What do you mean by participative management? Justify its need in the industrial field

2. Explain clearly the different methods of PM. Which one do you consider the most appropriate for Indian condition?

3. Explain the pre requisite of successful PM

4. Explain the position workers participation in management in India

5. Discuss the significance of the concept of workers participation in management.

6. “The concept of workers participation in management is, in fact , industrial democracy in practice in India” –Explain

7. “ Workers participation is management is more in theory less in practice in India”- Explain

8. Suggest measures for meaningful participation of workers in the management

9. What is meant by PM? Also state Importance & limitation

10. Review the progress of PM in India

11. “ A worker is a worker & must be treated according” OR

“A worker is a partner in the production process & must be treated with honor & dignity”. Which statement you consider appropriate in the light of PM concept & why?

12. Short notes:

a. Concept of industrial democracy

b. Methods of PM

c. Any contemporary PM style

d. Latest trend in employee PM

e. Contemporary methods of PM



DEFINITION AND CONCEPT OF INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS:

Industrial relations can be defined as the relationship between the management and the employees of an industry. According to Dale Yoder industrial relations is a "whole field of relationship that exists because of the necessary collaboration of men and women in the employment process of an industry."

The International Labour Organization (ILO) stated that "industrial relations deal with either the relationships between the state and employers' and workers' organizations or the relations between the occupational organizations themselves".

V. B. Singh defined industrial relations as "an integral aspect of social relations arising out of employer-employee interaction in modern industries, which are regulated by the state in varying degrees in conjunction with organized social forces and influenced by prevailing institutions. This involves a study of the state, the legal system, workers' and employers' organizations at the institutional level; and that of patterns of industrial organization (including management), capital structure (including technology), compensation of the labour force and market forces at the economic level.

According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, "the concept of industrial relations has been extended to denote the relations of the state with employers, workers and their organizations. The subject, therefore, includes individual relations and joint consultation between employers and work people at their work place; collective relations between employers and their organizations and trade unions and the pan played by the state in regulating these relations." From the various definitions given above, we understand that

Industrial relations are an outcome of employer-employee relationship in an organization. Industrial relations facilitate harmonious relationships in an organization by setting a framework

for the management and the employees. Industrial relations is based on mutual compromise and adjustment, for the benefit of both the

parties involved. The state and legal system also have a role to play in the maintenance of a conflict-free industrial

environment. The different parties in the system with well-defined role are the management, the employee and

the unions.

IMPORTANCE OF PEACEFUL IR

IR is key for increased productivity in industrial establishments. For example, at the Alwar plant of Eicher Tractor, productivity went up from 32 percent between 1994 and 1996 to 38 percent in 1997. This increase was possible because of peaceful IR.

On the flip side are the painful stories of firm that became history because of labour militancy. B&C Mills, Tamil Nadu, once a household name in the country was wound up, also several



textile mills at Davanagere in Karnataka. Reason---militancy of labour. Vijay Mallya had to sell Best & Crompton unable to carry on in the wake of intransigence on the part of labour. The company, which had undergone a total revamp under a new owner from Indonesia, is just a shadow of its past.

IR has moral dimensions, too. It is unethical on the part of any management to take advantage of the helplessness of the workers and exploit them. Unemployment compels workers ---particularly illiterate and unskilled---to accept jobs, inhuman working conditions and niggardly wages, notwithstanding.

IR assumes relevance in this context. One of its objectives is to protect workers’ interests and to improve their economic conditions.

IR seeks to protect the rights of managers too. Managers expect workers to observe codes of discipline, not to join illegal strikes, not to indulge in damage to company’s property, not to assault supervisors or peers, and not to come inebriated to the workplace.

Where a workers behavior deviates from expected lines, it is the management’s prerogative to

There is a set procedure for handling any act of indiscipline or indiscretion on the part of an employee and if the management satisfies the procedure, it is justified in taking action or even removing the employee from service.

The field of IR needs a new look, a look which is free from suspicion, prejudice and ill will towards workers.



TRADE UNIONS:

Definition of Trade Union:-

Trade Unions are voluntary organizations of workers or employers formed to promote or protect their interests through collective action. The Trade Unions Act , 1926 defines a trade union as a combination, whether temporary or permanent, formed

1. primarily for the purpose of regulating the relation between

a. workmen and employers or

b. between workmen and workmen, or

c. between employers and employers, or

2. for imposing restrictive conditions on the conduct of any trade or business, and includes any federation of two of more trade unions.

An analysis of above definition reveals that a trade union must be:

1. A combination of workers or employers,2. Such as combination could be permanent or temporary3. Could include federation of two or more unions, and4. To regulate relations among workmen, between workmen and employers or among employers

themselves.

Features of Trade Unions:-

1. It is an association either of employers or employees or of independent workers. They may consist of :-

o Employers’ association (eg., Employer’s Federation of India, Indian paper mill association, etc.)

o General labor unions

o Friendly societies

o Unions of intellectual labor (eg, All India Teachers Association)

2. It is formed on a continuous basis. It is a permanent body and not a casual or temporary one. They persist throughout the year.



3. Trade unions are voluntary association of workers in one or more occupations. Seven or more workers can form a trade union. A worker can join or leave any trade union as per his desire. However, it is relatively permanent combination of workers and is not a temporary or casual combination. It has to be a long term combination of achieving its objectives. Membership is voluntary. Large members of workers are away from any Trade union. Workers leave one union and join another union. They are also free to join any union as per their choice.

4. It is formed to protect and promote all kinds of interests –economic, political and social-of its members. The dominant interest with which a union is concerned is, however, economic. A union cover all aspects of life of its members but it is mainly for protecting economic interests of members.

5. Trade union are concerned i.e through united actions of members. Community of interest motivates them to unite and act collectively.

6. It achieves its objectives through collective action and group effort. Negotiations and collective bargaining are the tools for accomplishing objectives.

7. Trade union functions on democratic principles. Their objective is to protect the interests of workers and avoid their exploitation in any possible form and by any agency. Trade union have democratic setup. Office bearers are elected by members and major decisions are taken in the unions meetings after discussion and voting.

8. Trade unions are basically concerned with the problems of workers. They are for the protection of workers. Workers collectively protect their interests and also avoid their exploitation. A trade union is rightly described as an organised expression of the needs, aspiration and attitudes of the working class.

9. Trade unions are given legal recognition. Unions can be registered under the indian trade unions act, 1926. workers are given right to form unions for their protection and self help.

10. The basic principles of Trade unionism are:

Unity in Strength

Equal pay for equal work.

Security of employment/service

Trade unions function on the basis of these cardinal principles. The unions fight back, if any one of these principles is threatened.

11. Trade unions have shown remarkable progress since their inception; moreover, the character of

trade unions has also been changing. In spite of only focusing on the economic benefits of

workers, the trade unions are also working towards raising the status of labors as a part of

industry.

12. It includes federations of trade unions also.



13. The character of Trade union has been constantly changing due to economic, social, and other

factors. In addition, its origin and growth has been influenced by the number of ideologies.

Trade union movement in India

Trade union movement in our country has a century – long history. In the twenties, soon after the First World War , working class in our country realized the effectiveness of strike as a means of obtaining concessions , higher wages and better working conditions. Many strikes were declared consequently and most of them was successful. This success led to the formation of several unions.

The All India Trade Unions Congress (AITUC) was set up in 1920 with the objective of representing workers interests, to co- ordinate the activities of all labour organizations in the country, and to spread the message about the need for union movement. Hundreds of unions came into being in big and small industries. Their members, as well as membership , increased considerably.

A landmark in the history of labour movement was the enactment on the Trade union Act, 1926. The act gave a legal status to the registered trade unions and conferred on them and their members a measure of immunity from civil suits and criminal prosecution.

Towards the end of 1920, there was a split in the union movement, the split being caused by the leaders’ ideological differences.

The prosecution of the communists involved in the Meerut conspiracy case and the failure of the Bombay textile strike of 1929 brought a lull in trade union activities. Economic depression of the period also added to the dull phase of union movement.

The disunity in the trade union ranks was aggravated by the starting of three central labour organisations , namely, the Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC) in 1947; the Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS) in 1948, and the United Trade Union Congress (UTUC) in 1949.

As of today, there are more than 50,000 registered unions and most of them are affiliated to one or the other central trade union. Table 23.1 gives details about the central trade unions, their affiliates, political affiliation, date of establishment and membership claimed.



TRENDS IN TRADE UNION

A major trend witnessed these days is a change in the attitude of unions towards management ,industry ,government and the economy.

Unions are becoming increasingly matured , responsive, and realistic in their thinking and action.

Unions are reconciled to economic reforms their accent is on opposing the adverse impact of reforms and not the reforms per se.

Discussion among trade union circles nowadays is on issues like productivity, total quality management, technology, competition, MNC s, exports and he like. Major unions like that of the telecom employees, for example, are on line with the corporations plans of the department. They are now talking about issues like gearing up for competition and inculcating a customer friendly approach.

Unions have accepted that there is surplus labour everywhere and the fat needs to be shed. They are , therefore, extending co-operation to schemes like voluntary retirement, golden handshake and the like. For instant, 35000 workers of national textile corporation alone have retired voluntarily.

1. Depoliticisation of unions is another trend witnessed these days. It is too well-unknown, that the federations of the unions are affiliated to one political party or the other. Being affiliated to one or the other political party, the unions where more engrossed in toeing the lines of their political bosses then protecting workers interest. The trends towards depoliticisation started in the 1960s and received further boost in the post-liberalization era.

The experience of politically free unions is pleasant , reinforcing the belief that further the unions are from politics, more advantageous it is for them.

The internal union at the ailing Kamani Industry successfully took over the company and this now running it as a workers ‘ co-operative.

Independent unions obtained a high- court order scrapping the ceiling on house rent

allowance fixed by the Maharashtra Government

2. “Nature abhors vacuum”, so goes the saying. Unions seem to relish affiliations. They are now

formed on the basis of religion and caste. This is indicative of the sociopolitical realities after the

mandalisation of the polity and heightened sectarian consciousness after the demolition of the

disputed structure.

3. Workers’ associations in our country are highly fragmented and the consequence has been the

multiplicity of unions. Multiplicity is caused by ideological rifts, personal ambitions of leaders, Prof. Tahereem Bardi 18


craft divisions among workers, and the management’s own myopia. The Bokaro Steel Plant has

68 of them; the Calcutta Corporation has the unique distinction of having about 100 unions; and

the Singareni Collieries has 36 unions. SAIL has 240 unions and the Delhi Transport

Corporation has 50.

4. The multiplicity of unions weakens the bargaining strength of employees. For example, the

management of the Calcutta-based Dolphin Laboratories which had raised money in the capital

market in May 1994, to start a second manufacturing base in Gujarat, was forced, two months

later, to shift completely from West Bengal because of intra-union rivalry over the duration of

wage agreement.

5. One of the defects in the trade union movement in our country has been the phenomenon of

outside leadership. Partly, the fault for outside leadership lies with the Trade union Act, 1926,

itself. The act permitted outside participation to the context of 50 percent of the strength of the

office bearers in a union.

6. The clout of the central unions, which peaked during the post nationalization years, has started

waning, for example , the membership of INTUC , which claimed to have enjoyed a strength of

54.35 lakh in 1989, had slipped to 54.05 lakh in 1993 , a fall by 30000.

One of the reasons for this trend is the gradual realization on the part of the workers, who are young and well educated; hat independent unions are more advantageous than all Indian

federations.



QUESTIONS


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