night 2 session iii motivation and behavior and theories of motivation
TRANSCRIPT
Night 2
Session III Motivation and Behavior andTheories of Motivation
Some Theories Of Motivation
Need (or Content) Theories Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Alderfer’s ERG Theory McClelland’s Manifest Needs Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Process Theories Learning Theory Goal Setting Theory Equity Theory Expectancy Theory
Next
Learning Theories
Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior produced by experience.
Three types of learning: classical conditioning operant conditioning social learning
Classical Conditioning
Step 1: Before Conditioning
Bell No Response
and
Food Response (Salivation)
Step 2: During Conditioning
Bell Followed byFood Response (Salivation)
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Step 3: After Conditioning
Bell Response (Salivation)
Operant Conditioning
Stimulus Response Consequence
Arranging Contingencies to Increase Desired Behaviors
StimulusDesired
ResponsePositive
Consequence
Positive Reinforcement
StimulusDesired
Response
Removal ofNoxious
Consequence
Escape Learning (Negative Reinforcement)
DesiredResponse
Avoidance ofNoxious
Consequence
Avoidance Learning
Back
Functions of Goals
Goals let employees know what they are expected to do.
Goals relieve boredom. Reaching goals and getting positive feedback
leads to increased liking for the task and satisfaction with job performance.
Attaining goals leads to recognition by peers, supervisors, and others.
Attaining goals leads to feelings of increased self-confidence, pride in achievement, and willingness to accept future challenges.
Important Goal Characteristics
SPECIFIC GOALS
DIFFICULT GOALS
FEEDBACK ONPROGRESS
COMPETITION
PARTICIPATIONIN GOAL SETTING
MOTIVATION
GOALACCEPTANCE
GOALCOMMITMENT
Management by Objectives
Management by objectives (MBO) is a motivational technique in which the manager and employee work together to set employee goals.
MBO combines many key goal setting principles, including setting of specific goals, participation in goal setting, and feedback on performance.
MBO may be difficult and time consuming to implement, and may encourage focus on easily-quantifiable goals.
68 of 70 major studies showed MBO to result in productivity gains.
The Bottom Line: Goal Setting Theory
Use EmployeeParticipation toSet Difficult andSpecific Goals
Use EmployeeParticipation toSet Difficult andSpecific Goals
Ensure That theEmployee Under-Stands the Goalsand is Committedto Achieving Them
Ensure That theEmployee Under-Stands the Goalsand is Committedto Achieving Them
ProvideManagement Support(Including Feedback)for Achievement ofEmployee Goals
ProvideManagement Support(Including Feedback)for Achievement ofEmployee Goals
Link AppropriateConsequences toGoal Achievement
Link AppropriateConsequences toGoal Achievement
Assess EmployeeJob PerformanceAgainst Goals
Assess EmployeeJob PerformanceAgainst Goals
Back
Why Be Fair? General Reasons
When people experience a situation they feel is not fair, they experience an unpleasant state of tension.
Some people try to be fair because they think others will reward them for being fair.
Behaving fairly may bolster a person’s self-esteem.
Most people find it comforting to believe that life is fair.
Why Be Fair? Employers’ Reasons
To conform to business norms. To attract superior workers to their
company and weed out inferior workers.
To motivate employees to produce. To develop trust.
Equity Theory Equation
Op
Ip
Oo
IO
=
Restoring Equity (Underpaid Case)
Raise actual outcomes Lower inputs Perceptually distort inputs and/or
outcomes Perceptually distort comparison other’s
inputs and/or outcomes Leave the situation Act to change the comparison other’s
inputs and/or outcomes Change the comparison other
The Bottom Line: Equity Theory
AssessEmployee
Perceptionsof Equity inTheir WorkSituations
AssessEmployee
Perceptionsof Equity inTheir WorkSituations
IdentifyEmployees
WhoPerceive
Inequities
IdentifyEmployees
WhoPerceive
Inequities
Identify theBasis forEmployee
Perceptionsof Inequity
Identify theBasis forEmployee
Perceptionsof Inequity
EvaluateManagement
Policies and Practicesto Determine the
Validity of EmployeePerceptions
EvaluateManagement
Policies and Practicesto Determine the
Validity of EmployeePerceptions
Identify SpecificChanges That Can Be Made to Address
Employee EquityConcerns
Identify SpecificChanges That Can Be Made to Address
Employee EquityConcerns
Implement Changes andCommunicate
Them toEmployees
Implement Changes andCommunicate
Them toEmployees
Back
The Components of ExpectancyTheory
Effort to Perform at a Certain Level
Second-Order Outcome 2 (e.g.,Pay) with Valence V2
Second-Order Outcome 1 (e.g.,Approval of Supervisor)
with Valence V1
Second-Order Outcome 3 (e.g.,Esteem of Coworkers)
with Valence V3
Second-Order Outcome 4 (e.g.,Promotion Opportunities)
with Valence V4
Second-Order Outcomes 5 to n(e.g., Job Security, Better WorkHours) with Valences V5 to Vn
First-OrderOutcome
(e.g., Performance)
EX
PE
CT
AN
CY
INS
TR
UM
EN
TA
LIT
IES
The Linkage of Effort to a First-Order Outcome
EffortFirst-OrderOutcome
RolePerceptions
Ability
SituationalConstraints
Determinants of Effort to Perform
Effort toPerform
Valence ofPerformance
Expectancy
Implications of Expectancy Theory
Recognize that three conditions are necessary for motivation to perform.
Assess perceptions of each of these conditions. Identify gaps between employee and management
perceptions. Make sure you are giving employees what they
want. Ask what factors may be weakening expectancy
perceptions. Ask what factors may be weakening instrumentality
perceptions. If employees appear to be poorly motivated, work
backward.
The Bottom Line: Expectancy Theory
Identify DesiredLevel of Employee
Motivation
Identify DesiredLevel of Employee
Motivation
Provide Training,Direction, and
Opportunities toSucceed to Enhance
Employee’s Belief thatHe/She Can Achieve
High Job Performance
Provide Training,Direction, and
Opportunities toSucceed to Enhance
Employee’s Belief thatHe/She Can Achieve
High Job Performance
Promote Employee’sBelief that Job
Performance Mattersby Using AppropriateReward Policies and
Practices
Promote Employee’sBelief that Job
Performance Mattersby Using AppropriateReward Policies and
Practices
Use Organizational RewardSystems and Job Design to
Link Positively ValuedConsequences to Employee
Job Performance in an Equitable Manner
Use Organizational RewardSystems and Job Design to
Link Positively ValuedConsequences to Employee
Job Performance in an Equitable Manner
Promote ManagerialSupport to Ensure
That EmployeeMotivation Results inHigh Job Performance
Promote ManagerialSupport to Ensure
That EmployeeMotivation Results inHigh Job Performance
Back
What is Leadership?
Leadership is the Leadership is the ability to influence ability to influence others toward the others toward the
achievement of achievement of goalsgoals
The Changing Look of Leadership
Traits
Universal
One-Way Influence
Uniform
Leading Subordinates
Transactional
“Old Look”
Behaviors
Situational
Reciprocal Influence
Dyadic
Leading Everyone
Transformational
“New Look”
Emerging Perspectives on Leadership
While early leadership approaches emphasized the traits of successful leaders -- who they are -- newer approaches ask how successful leaders behave -- what they do.
Early approaches to leadership tended to take a universalistic perspective, asking, “What works?” Newer approaches, recognizing that characteristics of the situation, such as followers’ needs and skills and various aspects of the task must be considered, ask, “What works when?”
Early approaches considered primarily one-way influence, how a leader influences followers. Newer approaches recognize that the influence process is reciprocal -- just as leaders are influencing followers, followers are influencing leaders.
Emerging Perspectives on Leadership (Cont)
While early approaches tended to assume that leaders treat their various followers in similar ways, more recent approaches recognize that leaders may -- for good or bad reasons -- treat different followers differently.
While leadership approaches initially focused on the relationship of leaders to their subordinates, modern views are more inclusive; the “others” whom leaders influence may sometimes be team members or even hierarchical superiors.
Most early approaches to leadership tended to consider how a leader might influence others through a series of transactions. Newer approaches look more broadly at how leaders take actions to transform followers and organizations.
Leader Traits
The earliest approach to the study of leadership was to try to identify characteristics, or traits, of successful leaders.
Literally thousands of studies have now explored leadership traits.
Of the traits, activity, intelligence, knowledge, dominance, and self-confidence are most often found to be linked to leader success.
Unfortunately, most reviews of studies relating to leadership traits have concluded that the trait approach has not been fruitful.
Very few traits show up consistently across studies. Also, since traits are relatively stable, it is unlikely that
leaders can develop them through training. So, attention has shifted from what successful leaders are to
what they do.
Autocratic and Democratic Styles
Autocratic Democratic
Degree of Participation
Lower Higher
Autocratic and Democratic Styles
Autocratic leaders make decisions themselves, without inputs from subordinates. Democratic leaders let subordinates participate in decision making.
Democratic style is consistently linked to higher levels of subordinate satisfaction.
Democratic style is usually positively, but weakly, related to productivity.
This weak link of democratic style to performance may be because many factors determine whether a democratic style is appropriate, including the nature of the tasks and the characteristics of subordinates.
Autocratic and Democratic Styles(Continued) When tasks are simple and repetitive, participation has
little effect, because “there is little to participate about.” When subordinates are intelligent and desire
independence, participation is especially important. Participation is empowering and satisfying, and it
generates enthusiasm for the decisions that are reached. Participation takes time, and people sometimes don’t
like to participate, especially if they care little about the decision.
Since leaders may give more productive followers more responsibility, the relationship between democratic style and performance could be due to the impact of performance on style rather than vice versa.
Consideration and Initiating Structure
Effective leaders show concern for both the task and the people they leader. Without concern for task, the job won’t get done. Without concern for people, satisfaction, motivation, and team spirit will suffer and performance will ultimately suffer.
Two sets of leader behaviors -- consideration and initiating structure -- address these concerns.
Consideration and initiating structure are not conflicting sets of behaviors. Skillful leaders should be able to exhibit both sets of behaviors, and they should use those behaviors as needed.
Consideration and Initiating Structure(Continued) Consideration is behavior that shows friendship,
mutual trust, respect, and warmth. Considerate leaders are friendly and approachable, look out for the personal welfare of team members, back up the members in their actions, and find time to listen to them.
Initiating structure is behavior that helps clarify the task and get the job done. Initiating leaders provide definite standards of performance, set goals, organize work, emphasize meeting deadlines, and coordinate the work of team members.
Sample Items To Measure Considerationand Initiating Structure
Consideration
Treats all work unit members as his or her equal
Is friendly and approachable Does little things to make
work pleasant Puts suggestions made by
the work unit into operation Looks out for personal
welfare of work unit members
Initiating Structure
Lets work unit members know what is expected of them
Schedules the work to be done
Encourages the use of uniform procedures
Assigns work unit members to particular tasks
Makes his or her attitudes clear to the group
Path-Goal Theory
The theory is called path-goal because its major concern is how the leader influences the followers’ perceptions of their work goals, personal goals, and paths to goal attainment.
The theory suggests that a leader’s behavior is motivating or satisfying to the degree that the behavior increases follower goal attainment and clarifies the paths to these goals.
Some Contingency Factors in the Path-Goal Theory
Some task contingency variables: degree of structure degree to which the task is intrinsically
satisfying degree to which the task provides feedback
concerning accomplishment Some follower contingency variables:
need for independence ability, experience, training “professional” orientation
Elements of Path-Goal Theory
Leader Behaviors:• Directive• Supportive• Participative• Achievement- Oriented
• Clarification of Paths to Goals• Increased Goal Attainment
SubordinateResponses:• Motivation• Performance• Satisfaction
SubordinateCharacteristics
TaskCharacteristics
The Bottom Line:Applying Path-Goal Theory
Assess theSituation
Assess theSituation
Identify Taskand Employee
Needs
Identify Taskand Employee
Needs
MatchAppropriate
LeaderBehavior to the
Situation
MatchAppropriate
LeaderBehavior to the
Situation
If This Does NotWork, Train the
Leader to ChangeHis/HerBehavior
If This Does NotWork, Train the
Leader to ChangeHis/HerBehavior
ChangeLeader
Behavior If ItDoes Not Match
the Situation
ChangeLeader
Behavior If ItDoes Not Match
the Situation
If This Does NotWork, Replace
the Leader
If This Does NotWork, Replace
the Leader
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
According to leader-member exchange theory, leaders establish a one-on-one relationship with each follower. These relationships vary in terms of the quality of the exchange.
Some followers -- members of the in-group -- have a high-quality relationship with the leader, characterized by mutual trust, liking, and respect. They enjoy the confidence of the leader, are given interesting and challenging assignments, and in turn they work hard, are loyal, and support the leader.
Other followers -- the out-group -- have a lower quality relationship with the leader. The leader tends to see them as lacking motivation or competence or loyalty, interacts with them less, and offers them fewer chances to demonstrate their capabilities.
Out-group members may “live down” to the leader’s expectations, carrying out the tasks defined in their formal job descriptions and facing no real expectations of loyalty, creativity, or high performance.
Leader-Member Exchange Theory (Cont.)
Followers may sometimes find themselves as members of out-groups due less to their abilities and potential than to favoritism, stereotypes, and personal conflicts.
In an ideal world there would be no in-groups and out-groups. In the real world, in-groups and out-groups are common and perhaps cannot be avoided.
Leaders must do all they can to ensure that in-group membership is based on ability and motivation rather than favoritism and prejudice.
They must also ensure that followers can move between the groups, having access to in-group membership when it is earned and falling from such status when it is no longer justified.
The most recent focus of leader-member exchange theory is on the process of leadership making, which develops over time in three phases.
SS Subordinate
Leader-Member Exchange Model
Out-Group
SSSS
SS
SS
SSSS
SS
SS SSIn-Group
Leader
LeaderSA
SA
SBSB
SCSC
SESE
SDSD
The Bottom Line: Applying theLeader-Member Exchange Model
List theEmployees in
Your WorkUnit
List theEmployees in
Your WorkUnit
Identify EmployeesWho You Feel
Are Part ofthe “In-Group”
Identify EmployeesWho You Feel
Are Part ofthe “In-Group”
Identify LeadersWho You Feel
Are Part ofthe “Out-Group”
Identify LeadersWho You Feel
Are Part ofthe “Out-Group”
Develop LeadershipStrategies for Moving
Employees fromthe “Out-Group”
to the “In-Group”
Develop LeadershipStrategies for Moving
Employees fromthe “Out-Group”
to the “In-Group”
ImplementLeadershipStrategies
ImplementLeadershipStrategies
Types of Leadership
Transactional Leadership: Leadership based on transactions or exchanges -- the promise, and provision, of rewards for good performance and threats or discipline for poor performance.
Transformational Leadership: Leadership which transforms followers and organizations by: broadening and elevating the interests of
employees generating awareness and acceptance of the
purposes and missions of the group stirring employees to look beyond their own self
interest for the good of the group
Elements of Transformational Leadership
TRANSFORMATIONALLEADERSHIP
ATTRIBUTEDCHARISMA
INDIVIDUALIZEDCONSIDERATION
IDEALIZEDINFLUENCE
INSPIRATIONALLEADERSHIP
INTELLECTUALSTIMULATION
Transformational Leader Behaviors Attributed charisma. Charisma is a Greek word meaning
“Divinely inspired gift.” Leaders are seen as charismatic when they display a sense of power and confidence, remain calm during crisis situations, and provide reassurance that obstacles can be overcome.
Idealized influence. Leaders display idealized influence when they talk about their important values and beliefs; consider the moral and ethical consequences of their decisions; display conviction in their ideals, beliefs, and values; and model values in their actions.
Intellectual stimulation. Intellectually stimulating leaders help followers recognize problems and find ways to solve them. They encourage followers to challenge the status quo. They champion change and foster creative deviance.
Transformational Leader Behaviors(Continued)
Inspirational leadership. Inspirational leaders give followers hope, energizing them to pursue a vision. They envision exciting new possibilities, talk optimistically about the future, express confidence that goals can be met, and articulate a compelling vision of the future.
Individualized consideration. Transformational leaders show personal interest and concern in their individual followers, and they promote their followers’ self-development. They coach their followers, serve as their mentors, and focus them on developing their strengths.
Skills Associated with Transformational Leadership
TRANSFORMATIONALLEADERSHIP
ANTICIPATORYSKILLS
VISIONINGSKILLS
SELF-UNDERSTANDING
SKILLS
EMPOWERMENTSKILLS
VALUE-CONGRUENCE
SKILLS
The Language of Leadership
Transformational leaders must be able to inspire; communicate their vision, ideals and beliefs; provide compelling reassurance; and challenge followers to think in new ways.
To do all this, transformational leaders must be masters of communication; they must “speak the language of leadership.”
Two aspects of the language of leadership -- framing and rhetorical crafting -- are crucial.
Reflections on Leadership Pay careful attention to your formal or informal
leadership roles. Successful leaders draw on a variety of power bases.
Referent power has the broadest range, and heavy reliance on coercive power can be dangerous. Control over resources, information, and the problem-solving process all serve to increase power.
A leader must show concern for both task accomplishment and fulfillment of subordinate needs.
The same style or behavior may not work in every situation. In deciding how to behave, consider the maturity and needs of your subordinates, the structure and other characteristics of the task, and the nature of the organization.
Reflections on Leadership (Cont.)
Leadership can be frustrating. Structured tasks, separation of superiors and subordinates, bureaucratic constraints, and other factors can sometimes handcuff the leader. Try to be aware of, and deal with, leadership substitutes and neutralizers.
As a leader you should not accept situations as fixed. You may be able to change task structure, your power, relations with subordinates, and other dimensions.
The models reviewed in this chapter show that leader sensitivity, critical thinking, and flexibility are crucial.
Remember that vision and inspiration are important. Don’t ignore transformational aspects of the leadership role.