state of illinois illinois department of natural resources · species fact sheets on 24 of these...

State of IllinoisIllinois Department of Natural Resources

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis project was originated by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (PUBL-RS-908-93, Copyright 1994)and was authored by Susan Gilchrist, Kadi Row and David Borneman. Funding and support to make the project pos-sible were provided by the University of Wisconsin – Center for Biology Education, National Association of the Partnersof the Americas – Wisconsin-Nicaragua Partners and the United States Forest Service. The cover layout was producedby Jeanne Gomoll.

In addition, the Illinois Department of Natural Resources (IDNR) would like to thank the following individuals for theinvaluable support, advice and assistance they provided in producing the Illinois version of One Bird—Two Habitats.

Deb Chapman, Chicago Botanic GardensKen Nelson, Educator

Nan Buckardt, Ryerson Woods Nature CenterCliff Knapp, Northern Illinois University

Lanis Petrik, Brookfield ZooMarylin Lisowski, Eastern Illinois University

Illinois Department of Natural ResourcesValerie KeenerVern Kleen

Kathy Andrews

Illinois Department of Natural ResourcesDivision of Education

One Natural Resources WaySpringfield, IL 62702

[email protected]://www.dnr.illinois.gov

Equal opportunity to participate in programs of the Illinois Department of Natural Resources (IDNR) and those funded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and other agencies is available to all individualsregardless of race, sex, national origin, disability, age, religion or other non-merit factors. If you believe you have been discriminated against, contact the funding source's civil rights office and/or the EqualEmployment Opportunity Officer, IDNR, One Natural Resources Way, Springfield, IL 62702-1271; 217/785-0067; TTY 217/782-9175.

Printed by the Authority of the State of Illinois 12/15 • IOCI 16-0306

http://www.dnr.illinois.gov

mailto:[email protected]

One Bird –Two HabitatsTable of Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iiHow to Use This Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ivSample Schedule of Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ivList of Materials by Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vIDNR Division of Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viACTIVITIES

Interview a Bird . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Cultural Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3Avian Olympics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7If There Were No Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13Migrateering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16The Balancing Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19Defining a Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21Habitat Squeeze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24A Round Trip Ticket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26Migration Migraines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29Designing Researchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33Buddy Banding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36Intelligent Tinkering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39Territory Tango . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43Cowbird Capers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46Town Meeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49Tell the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

APPENDICESA-Some Neotropical Migrants Present in Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56B-Species Fact Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57C-Ecology and Conservation: The Decline of Songbirds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105D-Research Article Summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109E-Forest Resources of Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111F-U.S. Forest Cover from 1620 to 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113G-Activities by Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114H-Activities by Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115I-Action Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116J-Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117K-Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118L-Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120

i One Bird – Two Habitats, Illinois Department of Natural Resources

One Bird – Two Habitats, Illinois Department of Natural Resources ii

The ThemeOne Bird—Two Habitats was developed by theWisconsin Department of Natural Resources as athree- to six-week environmental education unit for mid-dle school students, grades six through eight.Recognizing differences in educational philosophiesand environmental education requirements, use of thematerial as a unit in Illinois classrooms may not bepractical. Recommendations for adapting the materialto the Illinois situation are included.

The theme is Neotropical migratory bird conservation: aglobal environmental issue that illustrates the connec-tions between people, birds and forests in differentparts of the world. The major theme addressed in theunit is interconnectedness. People and wildlife sharesimilar needs, and it is in trying to meet these needsthat we are interconnected. Environmental issues areglobal and only through global connections among peo-ple can we address environmental concerns.

This unit presents one issue, the decline of someNeotropical migratory bird populations and emphasizesthe connections between Illinois and Central and SouthAmerica, to show how people, their actions and theenvironment are interconnected. A Neotropical migrato-ry bird is one that moves seasonally between temper-ate regions of the Americas, where it spends its breed-ing time, and tropical areas, where it spends the wintermonths. A listing of Illinois Neotropical migrants andspecies fact sheets on 24 of these birds can be foundin Appendices A and B.

The IssueResearchers and casual bird watchers have observedpopulation declines among some long distance migra-tory birds. Although grassland and wetland migratorybirds are affected by changes in the environment, thisunit focuses on Neotropical migratory forest birds.These are the forest-dwelling birds that breed in NorthAmerica during summer months and migrate to the newworld tropics, including Central America, to spend thewinter. For various reasons, including increasing humanpopulations, the once vast forests in the Americas—temperate and tropical—have been greatly reduced.The reduction and alteration of these northern nestinggrounds and southern wintering grounds are major fac-tors contributing to the decline of some migratory forestbird populations. Other factors have contributed to theirdecline as well. Predatory species such as raccoons(Procyon lotor), blue jays (Cyanocitta cristata) and

house cats (Felis catus) disrupt the nesting of manybirds. Pesticides and continuing pollution affect foodsources used by birds.

Not all birds migrate. Of the birds that migrate, not allare Neotropical migrants. Some birds are short-dis-tance migrants. Of the birds that migrate from northernNorth America to the tropics in Latin America, some livein forests, but many live in grasslands, wetlands oralong the shore. Those requiring interior forest habitatare only a portion of the birds which inhabit forests. Inaddition, birds that live in forests during the nestingseason may not require the same habitat when theyare in the tropics and vice-versa.

Birds and people both depend on forest resources. Inorder to conserve forest bird populations, land usedecisions regarding forests must take into account theimpacts of those uses on people, birds and the forestitself. Because migratory birds spend time in North,South and Central America, they are a shared interna-tional resource. Their population declines illustrate theglobal effects of human actions.

The ProjectTo ensure as much accuracy as possible, the activitiesand background information have been based onresearch. The materials were reviewed by experts inornithology, forestry, Latin America and education.Then, 23 Wisconsin teachers field-tested the curriculumin their classes. Data collected during this pilot indicat-ed the success of the unit: students showed a statisti-cally significant increase in knowledge and understand-ing related to the unit; and teachers and students bothexhibited positive attitudes about the materials. With aresearch base, activities that teach about researchmethods, and a rigorous evaluation of its effectiveness,One Bird—Two Habitats bridges the gap betweenresearch and education.

The Project in IllinoisBecause of the curriculum's documented success inWisconsin, the Illinois Department of NaturalResources (IDNR) sought and was granted permissionto revise the materials for use in Illinois. Funding for therevision and distribution of the materials was providedby the IDNR and the Illinois State Board of Education(ISBE) through a Scientific Literacy grant. Two addition-al activities have been added to the Illinois version,“Interview a Bird” and “Interpreting Data.”

Introduction

iii One Bird – Two Habitats, Illinois Department of Natural Resources

Introduction —continued

Connections to Central and South AmericaThe National Association of the Partners of theAmericas (NAPA) initiated the One Bird—Two Habitatsproject to further NAPA's goals in creating connectionsbetween North America and Central America. TheWisconsin Project utilized the Partners of the AmericasProgram to partner with their sister state, Nicaragua.

NAPA has designated Sao Paulo, Brazil, as the Illinoispartner. Many of the Illinois Neotropical migrants do nottravel as far south as Sao Paulo. Most Brazilian peoplespeak Portuguese, a language not commonly spoken inIllinois schools, according to a survey conducted by theISBE listing the top 17 non-English languages spokenin Illinois public schools. For these reasons, less of anemphasis is placed in this document on promoting anyone “sister state/country” for participating classrooms towork with.

As an educator, you do have the opportunity to utilizelocal resources and select an alternative sister country.Working with the students and community, you mayestablish an alternative partnership. Partnerships with aLatin American (including Central and South America)country may already exist through the ForeignLanguage Department in your school or district, or

there may have been foreign exchange studentsattending school in your area who would be willing tohelp facilitate a partnership. Other sources of contactsmay include members of your community, formerPeace Corps representatives or service organizations.Using technology to contact schools in other countriesmakes the process easier.

Allowing students to select the partner country will givethem an opportunity to research the country and inter-view people in their school or community, therebyenhancing social science learning skills.

Because the original material was devised for theWisconsin-Nicaragua partnership, many of the activitiesprovide examples of Spanish-based literature fromNicaragua. These samples remain in the Illinois versionas the concepts and translations meet the conceptsand objectives of the activities.

Scientific NamesThe scientific name for the Neotropical migratory birdsfeatured in the text can be found in Appendix A. Thescientific name for all other species is shown in the textimmediately following the organism’s common name.

One Bird – Two Habitats, Illinois Department of Natural Resources iv

One Bird—Two Habitats is a series of interconnectedactivities, built on a conceptual framework. Activitiescover such topics as bird appreciation, habitat, migration,forest management, research and human impact. Someactivities build upon knowledge and understandinggained through previous activities. The unit introducesthe issue of declining Neotropical migratory bird popula-tions and ends with an activity that encourages studentsto share information about the issue beyond the class-room. Because the issues related to land use decisions,forest management and Neotropical migratory bird popu-lation declines are very complex, it is important that theactivities are interrelated through discussion.

Many of the activities require more than one class peri-od to complete. Some require set-up time over severaldays prior to conducting the lesson. Two sample activi-ty schedules are included to facilitate planning to pro-vide a balance of fun and serious, simulation and dis-cussion, short and long and introductory and evaluatorykinds of activities. One schedule proposes use of allactivities while the other is an abbreviated scheduletouching on the major topic areas. The order of someactivities may be switched. Please review the sched-ules and note the activities which require prior planning.

Some of these activities require active participation andare interdisciplinary. It is important that a discussion fol-low each activity to emphasize connections between theactivity and the issue and to ensure that learningoccurs. To support such discussions, teacher back-ground information accompanies each lesson. Additionalbackground information can be found in the appendices.

This material lends itself very well to interdisciplinaryteam teaching. There are activities suited to socialscience and science, as well as foreign languages,physical development and health, mathematics andEnglish language arts (see Appendix H). In teamteaching communication is critical to ensure that allthe concepts and key points are covered and thatthe activities are interconnected.

Just as interconnectedness is a major theme in the con-tent of this material, so it has been incorporated in theteaching methods through the use of cooperative learn-ing strategies in some of the activities. Cooperativelearning creates interdependence among students inorder to reach a learning goal. Each student must beresponsible for the understanding of the whole group.

Methods of evaluating student learning are incorporat-ed in each activity. The activities "Town Meeting" and"Tell the World" are designed to serve as indicators ofstudent understanding of the issues. Appendix I offerssuggestions for action projects.

The goals of this material are to increase awareness ofthe need for conservation of Neotropical migratory for-est birds and their habitats and to increase understand-ing of the global aspects of environmental issues. Wehope that increased awareness and understanding willlead to conservation action.

SAMPLE #1 SCHEDULE OF ACTIVITIESDay Activities

1 Introduce cooperative groups—Interview a Bird2 Cultural Exchange (begin)3 Cultural Exchange (complete)4 Avian Olympics5 If There Were No Birds... (begin and assign homework)

Migrateering (begin)Defining a Forest (hang first trees)

6 Migrateering (complete)Defining a Forest (hang more trees)

7 The Balancing ActDefining a Forest (hang more trees)

8 Defining a Forest (hang more trees and discuss)9 Habitat Squeeze (begin the squeeze)10 Habitat Squeeze (continue the squeeze)11 Habitat Squeeze (discuss)

If There Were No Birds... (discuss)12 A Round Trip Ticket13 Migration Migraines14 Designing Researchers (begin)15 Designing Researchers (complete)

Interpreting Data16 Buddy Banding (introduce)17 Buddy Banding (discuss)

Town Meeting (introduce and assign roles)18 Intelligent Tinkering19 Territory Tango20 Cowbird Capers

Town Meeting (begin)21 Town Meeting (continue)22 Town Meeting (complete)23 Tell the World

How to Use This Guide

v One Bird – Two Habitats, Illinois Department of Natural Resources

How to Use This Guide —continued

SAMPLE #2 SCHEDULE OF ACTIVITIESDay Activities

H1 Introductory homework reading assignment: articles in Appendices C and D

1 If There Were No BirdsH2 Balancing Act (make mobile)2 Balancing Act (discuss)H3 Read species fact sheets3 Habitat Squeeze 4 Town Meeting (start)5 Town Meeting (finish)H6 Research Latin American country6 Cultural Exchange (start)7 Cultural Exchange (finish)

H = homework assignment

LIST OF MATERIALS NEEDED BY ACTIVITYActivity MaterialsInterview a Bird fact sheetsCultural Exchange mailing materials; international money

order; funds to cover cost of reply from partner country

Avian Olympics triple-beam balance; clock with second hand; world map with scale in miles

Migrateering five compasses; ribbon; index cards; map of the stars

The Balancing Act string or fishing line; sticks; objectsgathered by students

Defining a Forest paper cut-outs of treesHabitat Squeeze rope; off-limits signA Round Trip Ticket copies of map enclosed with activity;

colored pencilsMigration Migraines construction paper; buttons or bottle

caps; copies of data sheet enclosed with activity

Buddy Banding construction paper; masking tape;banding permits

Intelligent Tinkering old machines; toolsTerritory Tango craft dough; jar lids; jars; waxed paper;

table knifeCowbird Capers blindfold; paper cups; plastic bowl;

string; popcornTown Meeting copies of research article summaries in

appendix; copies of roleplaying cardsenclosed with activity

Tell the World whatever students require to carry outtheir projects

No materials needed for activities not listed.

One Bird – Two Habitats, Illinois Department of Natural Resources vi

IDNR Division of EducationThe Illinois Department of Natural Resources’(IDNR) Division of Education developed this uniton Illinois Birds for use in Illinois classrooms.Additional supplemental resources to help youteach about birds in Illinois are also availablefrom the IDNR.

Illinois Birds Resources TrunkPosters, field guides, lessons, replica skulls, repli-ca eggs, rubber feet replicas, books and birdsongs and calls on DVD are just some of the itemscontained in this “trunk.” The trunk is a large plas-tic container filled with hands-on resources that willhelp make bird lessons more meaningful for stu-dents. IIllinois Birds Resources Trunks are avail-able for loan from locations throughout Illinois. Visithttp://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education/Pages/birdtrunk.aspx to access the list of lending sitesand the trunk content list.

PublicationsPosters, activity books, books and other items canbe ordered or downloaded through the IDNRPublications page athttp://www.dnr.illinois.gov/Publications.

Illinois’ NaturalResourcesTrading CardsThe cards provideimages and informa-

tion to be used in a variety of ways in the class-room. Each card contains an image, habitat asso-ciation, common name and scientific name (whereapplicable) on the front side with additional rele-vant information on the back side. Teachers inIllinois schools may request one pack of each ofthe available sets of cards. Send your request onschool letterhead to the address shown on thenext page.

http://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education/Pages/birdtrunk.aspx

http://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education/Pages/birdtrunk.aspx

vii One Bird – Two Habitats, Illinois Department of Natural Resources

Illinois Department of Natural ResourcesDivision of Education

One Natural Resources WaySpringfield, IL [email protected]

217-524-4126

VideosVideos from the IllinoisDepartment of Natural Resourcesabout Illinois birds can be

accessed through the Podcast page athttp://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education/Pages/podcasts.aspx or through YouTube.

Field Trip Tips Web PageLet the IDNR help you plan yourfield trip with this interactive site.Field trip destinations are correlatedwith topics that can be studied,

lesson plans and supplemental resources. Go tohttp://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education/Pages/fieldtrip.aspx to access the Web page.

Illinois Biodiversity Field Trip GrantTake your students to visit Illinois’ natural or cultural heritage with an Illinois BiodiversityField Trip Grant. Visit http://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education for details and an application form.

http://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education

http://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education/Pages/fieldtrip.aspx

http://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education/Pages/fieldtrip.aspx

http://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education/Pages/podcasts.aspx

http://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education/Pages/podcasts.aspx


One Bird – Two Habitats, Illinois Department of Natural Resources 1

CLASS TIME: three classroom periods of 30 minutes eachor longer

VOCABULARY: interview, reporting, anthropomorphism

MATERIALS: Fact Sheets in Appendix B; writing andresearch materials

COMMON CORE STANDARDS: English language artsMS Writing 2, MS Writing 3, MS Writing 4, MS Writing 7,MS Writing 8, MS Reading 1, MS Reading 4, MS Reading 6

NEXT GENERATION SCIENCE STANDARDS: MS-LS2-4

TEACHER’SGUIDEACTIVITY

Interview a BirdOVERVIEWStudents will perform research, write a report and con-duct an interview to learn more about a Neotropicalmigratory bird.

CONCEPTSBirds are similar but there is a great amount of diversityin the requirements species or groups of species havefor survival.

OBJECTIVESStudents will be able to: 1) generalize that birds range insize, color, feeding habits and nesting requirements; 2)recognize some traits of Neotropical migratory birds; and3) recognize that some birds migrate while others do not.

KEY POINTSMigratory birds have habitat requirements in Illinois andLatin America.

TEACHER BACKGROUNDThere are more than 9,900 species of birds in the world.About 800 species have been found in North America,and more than 400 species have been recorded inIllinois. Birds are warm-blooded vertebrates. They havethree characteristics which distinguish them from otheranimals: feathers; hard-shelled eggs; and hollow bones.

As similar as birds are as a group, individual speciesoften have unique characteristics and habitat require-ments. All birds require habitat to survive. Habitat con-sists of food, cover, water and space. While two speciesmay both live in the same forest, one may live in a hol-low tree branch and the other on the ground. One mayhave a long, thin bill to probe tree bark for insects andthe other a heavy bill to crack seeds.

The major purpose of this activity is for students todevelop a working definition of birds, recognizing thatthey vary in any number of ways, including color, feed-ing habits and nesting requirements.

CAUTION: Students may have a tendency to projectinapplicable human characteristics to birds, especiallybecause the “interview” format puts the “birds” in ahuman situation. Assist the students in avoiding anthro-pomorphism. Stress that they should try to see theworld from the bird’s perspective.

PROCEDURE1. OPTIONAL: Invite a local newspaper reporter to talkwith your students. Ask him or her to describe whata reporter does and especially talk about the tech-niques of interviewing and writing used.

2. Have the students brainstorm a list of bird species.Check the list to make sure it includes many differ-ent types of birds, including migrants. OPTIONAL:Make available to the students a list of nativespecies and Neotropical migratory species(Appendices A, B) to help them focus on nearbyanimals they might not have considered.

3. Work with the students to establish a research, inter-view and reporting format for their use as reporters.Divide the class into groups of two students each.

ExampleRESEARCHEach team of two students should complete the followingitems.A. Decide which bird to “interview.” Make sure thatNeotropical migrants and nonmigratory birds areincluded.

B. Write a list of questions to ask. Questions could bedeveloped by the two-person teams or as a classproject, providing a uniform set of questions.

C. Each team of reporters selects a bird to study. Theteam will first need to gather information about thebird. They can do that by actually observing thebird, consulting resource materials or both!

D. Use reference materials to take notes for appropri-ate responses to questions.

2 One Bird – Two Habitats, Illinois Department of Natural Resources

INTERVIEWIt’s time to conduct the interview! One student asks ques-tions while the other student assumes the role of the wildbird and responds to the interviewer’s questions.Interviews may be conducted in front of the class, or justbetween the partners. Students then switch roles. Remindthe students to convey the perspective of the interviewbird without projecting inapplicable human attributes.

REPORTINGNow it’s time to organize the information gatheredthrough the process of researching and interviewing thebird. Each team should use its notes as the basis forwriting a newspaper article about the wild bird theyinterviewed.

4. Talk about the diversity of birds—including that birdsrange in size, color, feeding habits and nestingrequirements. Ask each student to share some featureof their assigned bird which they felt was unique orinteresting.

DISCUSSION1. Discuss why some birds migrate and others do not.

EXTENSIONS1. Have students make an artistic representation oftheir bird.

2. With the newspaper articles complete, either publisha wildlife newspaper for everyone to read and keepor read the articles aloud for everyone to hear.

3. Have the students try to observe their assigned birdin nature. Knowledge regarding behavior andmigration times is essential.

4. Obtain pictures of the birds interviewed. Have thestudents learn to recognize the individual species bysight. You may also want them to learn the songs ofthese birds.

ASSESSMENT1. Write a newspaper article of several paragraphs inlength which conveys the traits and behaviors of thebird selected for the interview.

2. Name three Neotropical migratory birds.

3. Name three nonmigratory birds.

© 2001 Council for Environmental Education. Adapted withpermission from Project WILD. Additional information fromIllinois Birds, Illinois Department of Natural Resources,Springfield, Illinois.


CLASS TIME: two class periods

MATERIALS: pictures and other light items that will repre-sent Illinois; mailing materials; map of sister country; nameand address of a teacher in sister country; funds to cover thecost of a reply

COMMON CORE STANDARDS: English language artsMS Writing 4, MS Writing 8, MS Writing 9, MS Reading 1,MS Reading 10


Cultural ExchangeOVERVIEWStudents send a cultural exchange packet representingaspects of life in Illinois to a class in a Latin Americanschool.

CONCEPTSn People in Latin America and North America havesimilar needs.

n People can act to help conserve Neotropical migra-tory bird populations and their forest homes.

OBJECTIVESStudents will be able to: 1) communicate with students inLatin America; and 2) observe commonalities betweenthemselves and their Latin American neighbors.

KEY POINTSn People in Latin America are similar to people inIllinois in many ways.

n Some of the difficulties in this activity reflect difficul-ties people encounter in trying to solve global envi-ronmental problems.

TEACHER BACKGROUNDJust as birds can fly across borders, so can ourthoughts and feelings, building a people-to-peoplebridge between Latin America and Illinois, creatingempathy and showing that we share concern for theenvironment.

Your class will prepare a cultural exchange package tosend to a class in Latin America. While you may receivea letter or package from your partner class, you shouldreduce the expectation of a response to minimize disap-pointment if there is none. Explain to the students that itis less a part of many Latin American cultures torespond than it is of North American cultures.

Spanish is the primary language in most of LatinAmerica. It is possible that no one in your exchange

school can translate English into Spanish. To explain thecultural exchange idea to the partner class, be sure toenclose the Spanish cover letter provided following thisactivity. An English version is also provided. Be sure tosign the letter and include your return address. You maywish to build a cooperative agreement with a Spanishteacher to aid in translating any written items you planto send or hope to receive.

Because packages sometimes are not delivered intactin Latin America, it is advisable that the package consistof those items that can fit flatly in a manila envelope.

We suggest you send visual images, such as drawingsand photos, examples of school work, a class photo, themusic to a song, maps of the United States and Illinois,pictures from calendars or posters to decorate class-room walls, a paper snowflake, postcards, a picture ofagricultural activities, sample forest products that wouldbe useful, such as some pencils and paper, a localnewspaper clipping with pictures or a picture of aNeotropical migrant.

Exercise care in sending international packages. Wedon't want to send any microscopic organisms in plantsor soil that might be damaging to Latin Americanecosystems or agriculture. If you have any questionsabout what is acceptable to send, contact the U.S.Postal Service.

The school year is different in many Latin Americancountries than it is in Illinois. Many school years begin inMarch and end in December. You may find that yourclass and its partner class will be in school at the sametime only from March to May or from September toDecember. Students here in September will not likely betogether in the same class they were in the previousMay. Likewise, the students in Latin America will not betogether in the same class in March that they were injust three months previously. The window for communi-cating class to class is very narrow.


The mail service between Illinois and Latin America maybe slow. Explore partnerships with organizations thatcould carry a package to your partner country. It can takeweeks for an exchange package to reach its destination.Plan to send your package early. If a return packagearrives after the One Bird—Two Habitats activities arecompleted, it is still important to follow up so thatstudents can see the rewards of their efforts.

Mail service is expensive relative to income in most ofLatin America, where many of the people are strugglingwith poverty. Classes may not send a reply packageunless the money to do so is included. If each studentcontributes $1.00, the cost of sending a large envelopeshould be covered. If the class prefers a fund-raising proj-ect to cover the costs, the fund-raising should be accom-plished before the unit. The U.S. Postal Service recom-mends sending an international money order, which canbe obtained at any bank. They also recommend sendingthe package by registered mail, with a return receiptrequested (which will add several dollars to the mailingcost but will add greatly to its chances of reaching its des-tination). In the event the money order is lost or stolen, thecurrent maximum amount you can receive back frominsurance is limited and may be less than the actual value.

PROCEDURE1. Tell students that they are going to send a culturalexchange packet to a class in Latin America todescribe our lives in Illinois. Have students researchLatin American countries and make oral and writtenpresentations. Students should make a map of thecountry selected.

2. Select one country to become the class partnercountry. Conduct further research about the countryand discuss how living there might be different thanliving in Illinois. What more would we like to knowabout students there? What might they like to knowabout our lives?

3. Explore selection of a partner school in the country.Use the Internet and contacts through the IllinoisState Board of Education to help you find a school.Have the class brainstorm categories of items tosend to their partner school. Some examples are:

n Illinois forests and the ways people use forestproducts;

n photographs of a Neotropical migrant that nestshere and winters there;

n a description of school and the subjects we study;n what we like to do in our free time;n a description and photograph of our town and whatit's like to live here.

n Make sure a category related to birds is included.

4. Divide the class into groups and assign a category toeach group. Tell groups to decide among themselveswhat kinds of pictures or lightweight items they couldsend to represent their category and help a studentin the partner school better understand life here.Have each group decide on the best items to send.

5. The next day, have student groups share the materialsthey selected and discuss what images of our cultureand environment these items will convey. Compose abrief class letter that contains what the items repre-sent. If possible, find someone to translate the letterinto Spanish. Be sure to include your return address.

6. Discuss how people in North America can worktogether with people in Latin America on prob-lems (such as the declining populations ofNeotropical migratory birds) that affect us both.Make the point that some of the obstacles (lan-guage barriers, slow mail service, poor trans-portation, limited telephone service, lack ofmoney, different goals) that we must overcome tosuccessfully complete a cultural exchange with aclass must also be overcome by people workingto solve global environmental problems.

7. Discuss how each group functioned. Did everyoneparticipate?

DISCUSSION1. How will the items selected for the exchange packetreflect life in Illinois? What kinds of things do youthink might represent life in the partner country?How might these representations be similar or differ-ent from each other? How could people in the twocountries work together to conserve Neotropicalmigratory birds?

2. If the class receives a response from the partnerschool, discuss the commonalities and differencesbetween our culture and theirs. Collaborate with aSpanish teacher for translations.

EXTENSION1. If some of the students speak Spanish or are study-ing it, or if a Spanish teacher or more experiencedclass will help, write letters, poems and stories forthe exchange package in Spanish.

ASSESSMENT1. Write a paragraph describing commonalitiesbetween the two countries.

2. Provide an appropriate item to be considered for inclu-sion in the packet and a rationale for its inclusion.

3. Explain what items were included in the packet andwhat each represents.


Dear Sir or Madam:

We are a middle school class from your sister state, Illinois. We are writing toshare a little bit about ourselves and life in Illinois, and hope that you can tell ussomething about your lives in return.

This year our class is studying about birds that migrate from Illinois to LatinAmerica. Some of the birds that build nests and raise young in Illinois fly southbefore the cold winter here. From October to April, they live in your country andthen return to Illinois again. An example of one of these birds is the red-eyedvireo (Vireo olivaceus), named for its red eye. This bird is like an ambassadorthat travels back and forth from our country to yours.

We are learning that many of these migratory birds are in trouble. Because ofchanges in the land and the way it's used in the United States and in LatinAmerica, there is less and less suitable space for these birds to live. Many oftheir populations are declining.

Because this is a problem that affects people in Illinois and your country, wewant to learn more about your country and teach you more about us. We needto work together to conserve birds and the environment. We hope that thispackage will help you learn more about our lives in Illinois.

In Illinois, most people go to school from kindergarten through 12th grade.Middle school usually refers to grades six to eight. We usually have a vacationfrom school during our summer, June, July and August. Illinois has much agri-cultural land, grassland and forests. It is a very green state, except during ourwinter when everything freezes and there is often a lot of snow. We are knownas the "prairie state" because of the prairies that originally covered our state.Most of the people live in towns or cities. Springfield is our state capital, andChicago is our biggest city.

We would like to receive a letter from your class that tells us about your lives.We hope you will send a response to the address at the top of this letter. Thankyou very much.

Sincerely,


Estimado (a) Señor o Señora;

Somos un grupo de escuela intermedia de su hermano estado de Illinois. Lesescribimos para compartir un poco con ustedes sobre nosotros y nuestra vidaen Illinois. Esperamos que ustedes, a cambio, nos relaten algo sobre su vida enPuerto Rico.

Este año nuestra clase está estudiando aves que migran desde Illinois haciaAmérica Latina. Algunas de las aves que construyen nidos y crian sus polluelosen Illinois, vuelan al sur antes de que llegue el invierno. Estas aves viven en tupais desde octubre hasta abril y regrasando nuevamente a Illinois. Un ejemplo deuna de estas aves es el “Julián Chiví Migratorio” (Vireo olivaceus). Este pájaro escomo un embajador que viaja de un lado para el otro desde nuestro país al tuyo.

Estamos aprendiendo que muchas de estas aves migratorias están en dificul-tades. Debido a los usos y cambios en el terreno en los Estados Unidos yLatinoamérica, cada vez hay menos lugares adecuados para que estas avespuedan vivir. Muchas de las poblaciones están disminuyendo. Debido a queeste problema nos afecta tanto en Illinois como en tu pais, queremos aprendermás acerca de tu pais, así como también enseñarte más sobre nosotros.

Necesitamos trabajar juntos para conservar las aves y el ambiente. Esperamos queeste paquete que eniamos les ayude a conocer más sobre nuestra vida en Illinois.

La mayoria de las personas de Illinois van a la escuela desde kindergarten(jardín de infantes) hasta el 12mo. grado. A los grados del 6to. al 8vo. son losque llamamos “middle school.” Por lo general, tenemos unas vacaciones cortasen invierno al final de diciembre y una más larga durante los meses de verano,junio, julio y agosto. Illinois tiene mucho terreno agrícola, pastos y bosques. Enun estado bien verde, excepto en invierno, cuando todo se congela y a menudohay mucha nieve. Nos conocen como el “estado de las praderas” debido a laspraderas qu cubrian nuestro estado originalmente. La mayoría de las personasviven en pueblos o ciudades. Springfield es nuestra capital y Chicago s nuestraciudad más grande.

Nos gustaría recibir una carta de tu clase que nos relate algo sobre sus vidas.Esperamos que nos envies la repuesta a la dirección que aparece en la partesuperior de esta carta. Muchas gracias.

Atentamente,

Translation by Aileen T. Velazco, Coordinator, Aquatic Resources Education Program, San Juan, Puerto Rico


CLASS TIME: one to two class periods

VOCABULARY: migration, fat-loading

MATERIALS: triple-beam balance or other balance; clockwith a second hand; student worksheet

COMMON CORE STANDARDS: mathematics 5.MD

NEXT GENERATION SCIENCE STANDARDS: MS-ESS3-4


Avian OlympicsOVERVIEWBy competing in physical activities, students learn aboutbirds' physical abilities and the difficulties of migration.

CONCEPTSn Some birds migrate to meet their habitat needs.n Migratory birds depend on habitat in Latin America,the Midwest and along flyways.

OBJECTIVESStudents will be able to: 1) describe some remarkablefeats that migrating birds perform; and 2) suggest rea-sons that individual birds may not survive a difficultmigration.

KEY POINTSn Birds have some unique physical abilities.n Birds need these abilities to successfully migratelong distances.

n Despite the difficulty and many hazards associatedwith migration, birds will continue to migrate.

TEACHER BACKGROUNDBirds are amazing animals. Although most birds can fly,those that migrate between breeding grounds in temper-ate regions and wintering grounds in the tropics arecapable of truly remarkable feats on the wing. Whilesome bird species stop and feed during migration, manybuild up huge fat reserves in preparation for migrationand make the trip without stopping. To fully appreciatewhat these migrants accomplish, consider the amount ofenergy reserves a bird must build up (fat-loading) inpreparation for migration, the distance a bird must traveland how fast it must fly.

In general, Neotropical migratory birds spend up to athird of each year migrating from wintering grounds tobreeding grounds and back again. Many embark on a20-hour-plus nonstop flight over as much as 1,000 kilo-meters (660 miles) of the Gulf of Mexico to reach the

Yucatan Peninsula. Unless confronted by storms orsevere cold fronts, migrants make the trip relatively easily.Others take the more circuitous overland route aroundthe Gulf through Texas into Mexico. While this routemay be up to three times longer, birds can stop to restand feed along the way.

Many natural and humanmade obstacles may causeproblems for birds during migration. Hazardous stormsand strong winds can blow birds off course or provideheadwinds that slow progress. Loss of stop-over habitatdue to land conversion and deforestation can prohibitbirds from getting needed food and rest along the route.Human constructions such as tall TV towers are respon-sible for many bird deaths due to collisions every year.

PROCEDURE1. Divide the class into cooperative groups (four to sixstudents per group) to compete against each otherin problem-solving, math skills, speed andendurance. The object is to get the most possiblepoints. Hand out a copy of the student worksheet toeach group.

2. Weigh-in: The average middle school student'sweight is 100 lbs or 45 kg. Ask students: How manygrams are in 45 kg? (45,000 g). Compare thatweight to the weight of the ruby-throated humming-bird, which weighs 4 grams (0.14 ounces). Eachteam should try to find an object that weighs 4grams. (A large index card weighs close to 4grams.) Test their entries with a triple-beam bal-ance scale. If no team is close, give them all anoth-er chance to see how close they can get with differ-ent objects. Working together, each team shouldcalculate how many hummingbirds (at 4 grams) itwould take to equal the weight of an average middleschool student (at 45 kg).

3. Eating like a bird (fat-loading): Each group shouldselect a spokesperson for this math contest. Othergroup members may help find the answers.


A quarter-pound hamburger and an order of fries isa fairly normal meal for a student. Two or threeburgers would be a huge meal. What's the largestnumber of quarter-pound hamburgers any of thestudents have ever eaten in a single meal? Whatpercentage of the average weight of a middle schoolstudent is this? (assuming a quarter-pound ham-burger = 114 grams). The first group with the correctanswer gets one point. Compare this with the black-poll warbler (Dendroica striata) that increases itsbody weight by 50 percent in preparation for its longmigration. If an average student weighing 45 kgwere going to increase his/her body weight by 50percent, how much weight would s/he gain? Thefirst group with the correct answer gets one point.How many quarter-pound hamburgers is this equalto?

4. Fast-travel: With each team entering its fastest run-ner, have a 50-meter dash to determine how long ittakes a student to sprint 50 meters (approximately55 yards). The group with the fastest sprinter gets apoint. Calculate how long it would take this runner tocover 1 km. Then, using a map of the world, havestudents estimate the distance in kilometers fromtheir school to their partner school. Using the twomeasurements, have students calculate how long itwould take the fastest student to sprint directly totheir sister country, assuming s/he could run at thesame speed in a straight line without stopping. Givea point to the team with the first correct answer.Compare these results with the blackpoll warbler,which is able to migrate 4,000 kilometers (2,480miles) in 15 days, or sanderlings (Calidris alba),which are able to migrate 7,500 kilometers (4,650miles) in 230 hours, or about 10 days.

5. Wing-flapping: Using a clock with a second handand one representative from each team, determinethe highest number of arm flaps possible in 10 sec-onds. Give a point to the group whose representa-tive flapped the most. Compare this with the ruby-throated hummingbird, which can flap its wings 120times per second. Most songbirds flap their wingsabout 12 to 16 times per second. Using the timefrom the "Fast-travel" event, calculate how manyarm flaps a student would make in a "flight" to thesister country.

6. Nonstop travel: Which student can continue flappinghis/her arms the longest? Give that student's team apoint. How does this feat compare with theAmerican golden-plover (Pluvialis dominica) whichflies nonstop for 48 hours as it migrates from NovaScotia to South America? Which student can run thefarthest without stopping? How does this comparewith the ruby-throated hummingbird, which flies non-stop for 800 kilometers as it migrates across the

Gulf of Mexico, or the snow goose, which can travel2,750 kilometers (1,700 miles) in 2½ days withoutstopping?

7. Long-distance travel: Have each team identify whichof its members has lived farthest from their currenthome. Calculate how many kilometers away that ison a map. How does this compare with the Arctictern (Sterna paradisaea) that travels more than19,000 kilometers (12,000 miles) twice a year fromthe high arctic regions of Canada and Greenland tothe Antarctic Ocean? Many small songbirds mayundertake migrations of 9,700 to 11,300 kilometers(6,000 to 7,000 miles). How many kilometers is itfrom the sister country to Illinois?

8. Fuel-efficiency: Humans burn about 60 calories byrunning one kilometer. At this rate, how many calo-ries would a student use in running from here to thesister country? If one gram of fat yields nine caloriesof heat, how many kilograms of fat would this stu-dent need to eat before making the trip? Give apoint to the team that can calculate this answer first.How does this result compare with the ruby-throatedhummingbird, which gorges itself on less than onegram of fat-rich insects, then makes an 800 kilome-ter (500 mile) nonstop flight across the Gulf ofMexico? Think about how few calories this birdburns per kilometer of flight, or the American gold-en-plover, which travels 3,900 kilometers (2,400miles) in 48 hours of continuous flight using lessthan 60 grams (2.1 ounces) of body fat.

9. Discuss these amazing feats that can be performedby birds but not by humans. Discuss how migrationcan sometimes be difficult for birds despite theirabilities.

DISCUSSION1. What natural obstÏacles or disasters can makemigration even more difficult for birds? What human-made obstacles must migrating birds face? What arethe benefits of migration, despite these hazards?

MODIFICATIONSet up each competition at a separate site—like centersaround the playing field or gymnasium. Have the groupseach select a member to participate in each centersimultaneously.

EXTENSIONS1. Conduct a migration obstacle course. Even with alltheir physical abilities, birds have many obstacles toovercome during migration. Let your studentsdesign and develop a migration obstacle course thatrepresents these various obstacles. For mountains,climb the bleachers; to represent a long distance,flap arms and run a lap around the school; dodge a


chair in the path to simulate avoiding TV towers;jump over a pan of water representing the Gulf ofMexico; to simulate lack of water along the route,eat a cracker and whistle before starting; sortthrough a container of assorted dried beans to findfive green peas to represent the need to find food;provide “safe zones” to avoid being eaten by a cat.Make this a relay event so everyone can participate.The fastest group gets a point.

2. Ask officials from your local TV towers, tall buildings,lighthouses, wind turbines and other tall aerialobstructions if they have any data concerning thenumber of birds killed there during migrations. If theydon't, see if they will let you make regular collectionsor observations of dead birds there during the springor fall migration. (NOTE: You must have a permit tocollect or possess a dead bird, songbird feathers, birdnests or bird eggs. Contact the Illinois Department of

Natural Resources, Office of Resource Conservation,at 217-785-8547 for permit information.) See also theWildlife in the Classroom publication athttp://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education/Documents/WITC.pdf. How many birds are killed by theseobstructions in your area? Although various solu-tions have been tried, this problem still persists andno one knows how to prevent birds from crashinginto tall aerial obstructions. Working to solve thisproblem could be an action project.

ASSESSMENT1. Evaluate student groups in their math calculations.2. Evaluate students' ability to record data accurately.3. Ask students to write a fictitious account of a bird'sdifficult migration.

http://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education/Documents/WITC.pdf

http://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education/Documents/WITC.pdf

STUDENTWORKSHEETAvian Olympics


1. Choose a mascot migratory bird for your group name.

2. The average middle school student's weight is 100 lbs or 45 kg. How many grams are in 45 kg?

Compare that weight to the weight of the ruby-throated hummingbird, which weighs 4 grams (0.14 ounces). Try tofind an object that weighs 4 grams. How many hummingbirds (at 4 grams) would it take to equal the weight of anaverage middle school student (at 45 kg)?

3. What's the largest number of quarter-pound hamburgers any student in this class has ever eaten in a single meal?

What percentage of the average weight of a middle school student is this amount? (assuming a quarter-poundhamburger = 114 grams)

Compare this result with the blackpoll warbler (Dendroica striata) which increases its body weight by 50 percent inpreparation for its long migration. If an average student weighing 45 kg were going to increase his/her bodyweight by 50 percent, how much weight would s/he gain? How many quarter-pound hamburgers does this equal?


4. How long did it take the fastest student to sprint 50 meters? Calculate how long it would take this runner to cover1 kilometer.

Using a map of the world, estimate the distance in kilometers from your school to the sister country. How longwould it take the fastest student to sprint directly to the sister country, assuming s/he could run in a straight line ata constant speed without stopping?

Compare these results with the blackpoll warbler, which is able to migrate 4,000 kilometers (2,480 miles) in 15days, or sanderlings (Calidris alba), which are able to migrate 7,500 kilometers (4,650 miles) in 230 hours orabout 10 days.

5. How many arm flaps can your group's representative do in 10 seconds?

Compare this result with that of the ruby-throated hummingbird, which can flap its wings 120 times per second.Most songbirds flap their wings about 12 to 16 times per second. Using the time from the "Fast-travel" event, cal-culate how many arm flaps a student would make in a "flight" to the sister country.

6. Which group member can continue flapping his/her arms the longest? How long?

Which group member can run the farthest without stopping? How far is that?

How does this result compare with that of the ruby-throated hummingbird, which flies nonstop for 800 kilometersas it migrates across the Gulf of Mexico or the snow goose, which can travel 2,750 kilometers (1,700 miles) in 2½days without stopping?


7. Which group member has lived the farthest away from their current home? How many kilometers away is that?

How does this result compare with that of the Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea) that travels more than 19,000 kilo-meters (12,000 miles) twice a year from the high arctic regions of Canada and Greenland to the Antarctic Ocean?Many small songbirds may undertake migrations of 9,700 to 11,300 kilometers (6,000 to 7,000 miles). How manykilometers is it from your sister country to Illinois?

8. Humans burn about 60 calories by running one kilometer. At this rate, how many calories would you need to runfrom here to your sister country?

If one gram of fat yields nine calories of heat, how many kilograms of fat would you need to eat before makingthe trip?

How does this result compare with that of the ruby-throated hummingbird, which gorges itself on less than onegram of fat-rich insects, then makes an 800 kilometer (500 mile) nonstop flight across the Gulf of Mexico? Thinkabout how few calories this bird burns per kilometer of flight, or the American golden-plover (Pluvialis dominica),that travels 3,900 kilometers (2,400 miles) in 48 hours of continuous flight using less than 60 grams (2.1 ounces)of body fat.


CLASS TIME: 30 minutes first day; 20 minutes second day

COMMON CORE STANDARDS: English language artsMS Reading 7, MS Speaking and Listening 1, MS Speakingand Listening 2, MS Speaking and Listening 4


If There Were No Birds...OVERVIEWThrough brainstorming and interviewing others, studentshear and express an appreciation for birds.

CONCEPTSBirds are economically, ecologically and aestheticallyvaluable.

OBJECTIVEStudents will be able to identify ways birds are benefi-cial to people and to the ecosystem they inhabit.

KEY POINTSn People value birds in a variety of ways.n Birds contribute to the ecosystem they inhabit.n Research findings depend on the questions asked.

TEACHER BACKGROUNDBirds play an important role in food chains and ecosystembalance. Birds provide aesthetic enjoyment for people andfunction as indicators of the health of the environment.

Birds fill more than one niche in their food chains.Many birds, including most of our Neotropical migrato-ry birds, are insect-eaters, consuming large numbersof both adult and immature insects and other arthro-pods (spiders and others). These birds, in temperateregions of North America, contribute to keeping insectpopulations in check. For example, a breeding pair ofwarblers can remove caterpillars from over a millionleaves in a period of 10 days. Herbivorous birds act asseed dispersers–ingesting seeds, carrying them greatdistances and finally excreting them far from the hostplant. Birds and/or their eggs may also be food forother predators, avian or mammalian.

A bird's role in the food chain is related to its function inmaintaining ecosystem balance. Some birds are pollina-tors for plants and others act as seed dispersers. Allbirds participate in nutrient cycling in their habitats. For

example, a plant grows out of nutrient-laden soil. Larvalinsects survive on the plant tissues, and the insects aresubsequently eaten by an ovenbird. The ovenbirdbecomes prey for a weasel, and the weasel returns thenutrients to the soil in its excrement.

Birds provide aesthetic enjoyment to many people.Identifying or watching birds is a hobby for a large num-ber of people. There are others who enjoy bird feeding attheir homes or appreciate listening to the chorus of birdsongs in the spring. Some people enjoy hunting and eat-ing certain birds. Many bird songs are territorial proclama-tions by males competing for mates. They tell other malesto stay away and tell females they are seeking a mate.

Early miners took caged canaries (Serinus canaria) intothe mines with them. A dead canary would alert the min-ers to the presence of colorless and odorless lethal gasin time for them to escape. Similarly, wild birds providean indication of the health of the environment here andin Latin America. Declining bald eagle (Haliaeetus leu-cocephalus) populations led to the discovery of danger-ous levels of DDT in the eagle's food. Researchers areusing the bald eagle, osprey and common loon (Gaviaimmer) as biosentinels, monitoring their health for signsof pollution in the water and the fishes that compromisea large part of their diet. A decline in suitable habitat forour Neotropical migratory birds is often followed by adecline in bird populations. By studying bird populationchanges in different areas we can get ideas of habitatpreferences of birds, and which habitat changesincrease or decrease bird populations. Since migratorybirds have certain needs in their breeding grounds,overwintering grounds and along their migratory routes,changes in populations may reflect changes in any or allof those habitats. The information we receive from birdpopulations can instigate research into the reasons forchanges in the environment and promote action to safe-guard the environment for human well-being.


PROCEDURE1. Divide the class into small groups. Ask the groups todiscuss various ways to complete this sentence: "Ifthere were no birds left in the world, ...." Compileinformation from each group to create a class list.

2. Review interview skills. Remind students to acceptwhatever answer the respondent gives to the ques-tion nonjudgmentally. Remind students that inter-views are a tool that researchers can use to findanswers to questions posed. Role play an interview.For homework, ask students to interview three peo-ple who are not class members. For the interviews,they should ask each person to complete the samesentence as above. They are to write down theresponses they receive. Stress interviewing a widerange of people: other students; neighbors; bus driv-ers; store clerks; family members; etc. Encourageeveryone to interview at least one person who isretired.

3. Have groups compile three to five other questionsfor the interview, such as: Do you put out bird feed-ers, birdhouses or birdbaths?; If so, why do youwant to attract birds?; Which is your favorite bird,and why do you like that kind of bird?; Do you like towatch birds?; Did you know that many migratorybird populations are declining?; Why do you thinksome bird populations are declining?; and What doyou think we should do about it?

4. Discuss the effectiveness of the small group so far.5. After the interviews have been conducted, discussthe interview process and the most prominentresponses. Add new answers to the class list envi-sioning a world without birds. Post this list in theclassroom throughout the rest of the One Bird—TwoHabitats unit. Introduce any bird contributions thathave been omitted through discussion.

6. Discuss whether students in Latin America wouldcomplete the sentence the same way yourstudents did.

DISCUSSION1. What were the most frequent responses to the inter-view questions? What points were omitted? Howwould you rate the quality of responses received?What other questions would you pose? What arethe key points for persuasion?

2. Discuss how students value birds in relation to otheranimal groups. Do you think birds, as a group, aremore or less important to forests or to us thaninsects, reptiles, amphibians or mammals?

EXTENSIONS1. Categorize and graph interview responses. Classifythe responses in the most logical categories possi-ble. Calculate the percentages by classification.

2. What if there were no birds, and therefore, no birdsongs? Students may want to experiment usingearplugs on a bird walk to see what a "silent spring"would be like. Have students write stories, poems orsongs to describe a world without birds. Publish astudent's story in the local newspaper.

3. Research reasons that birds sing. For fun? For us?To announce their presence to potential mates? Towarn others of the same species to stay away? Dobirds sing more here or in Latin America?

4. Ask students: If a raccoon (Procyon lotor) couldcomplete the sentence, what would it say?Complete the same sentence from an insect's pointof view. Did this vantage point change student per-spective on birds?

5. Discuss the poem, "The Oropéndola."

ASSESSMENT1. Students will interview three people outside ofclass and collect appropriate data on interviewees.Responses should be turned in as a writingassignment.

2. Students will compile a list of 10 ways that birds arebeneficial to people and/or the ecosystem.


THE OROPÉNDOLA

By Bosco CentenoA military commander for the Sandinistas in the 1980s,who fought in the Revolution of 1979.

The oropéndola onthe branch of the genízaropecks hungrilyat the red fleshof a pitaya;my presenceinterrupts her mealand, startled,she flies off screeching.

LA OROPÉNDOLA

La oropéndola enla rama del genízaropicotea hambrientala roja carnede una pitaya;mi presenciainterrumpe su comiday asustadase aleja chillando.

oropéndola = a large coffee-colored bird with streaks of dazzling yellow in its tailgenízaro = one of the largest trees in Nicaragua, with a corpulent, elephantine base; a favorite shade treepitaya = a cactus with red flowers and edible fruit; grows on the limbs of trees and on rooftops

Reprinted from Nicaraguan Peasant Poetry from Solentiname (1988) with permission of the translator, David Gullette, of Simons College, Boston,Massachusetts.


PREPARATION: Mark off migration course.


VOCABULARY: migration, orienteering, magnetic field

MATERIALS: one compass per group; ribbons to mark offorienteering course; index cards; a map of the stars

ILLINOIS LEARNING STANDARDS: physical developmentand health 21.B.2, 21.B.3


MigrateeringOVERVIEWBy completing an orienteering course, students learnabout bird migration.

CONCEPTSSome birds migrate to meet their habitat needs.

OBJECTIVESStudents will be able to: 1) use a compass to completean orienteering course; and 2) compare human and birdnavigation methods.

KEY POINTSn Birds use a variety of senses and cues to navigateand orient during migration.

n One way some birds navigate is by orienting them-selves in relation to the earth's magnetic field.

TEACHER BACKGROUNDMigratory bird species use different senses and cues tonavigate and orient during migration. From bandingbirds, researchers know that some species can return tothe same breeding ground or winter feeding site withincredible precision year after year. In fact, year afteryear the same individual bird can return to the samepatch of forest in Illinois after wintering in Latin America!Others always return to the same region. While scientistsdon't have concrete answers as to how birds accomplishthis amazing navigation, there are several theories.

In general, research supports the idea that birds use acombination of genetic and environmental cues to orientor navigate during migration. First, the sense to migratein a general direction is, at least in some bird species,genetic. Researchers have studied a phenomenonknown as migratory restlessness in some bird species. Ifconfined in experiments when they should be migrating,some species exhibit a frantic behavior indicating theirdesire to move, to migrate. Often, the birds orient in aspecific direction, such as north. Migratory behavior isnot learned—many forest species don't migrate as family

groups and often the young make their first journey with-out adults.

Other research indicates that some bird species use land-marks such as mountains and bodies of water, or morerecently, city lights, to give them visual environmental cuesas to their location. This theory is strengthened when weconsider the exceptional vision birds have. In addition, "abird's-eye view" from above gives birds an excellent per-spective from which to see large landmarks. A bird flyinghigh enough may be able to see evidence of the advanceof seasons, such as where ice has melted from lakes.However, at least for some species, this theory is problem-atic because there would be no way for young birds toknow these visual cues prior to their first journey.

Some researchers theorize that birds can sense geo-magnetism. According to this theory, the birds sensechanges in the earth's magnetic field and its relationshipto the earth's surface over some distance and navigateaccording to those changes.

Since approximately 80 percent of all migratory birds fly atnight, many scientists believe that birds use the stars ascelestial cues to location, much the same way humanshave used them for navigation. By knowing the configura-tion and placement of certain stars and constellations andknowing how they move across the sky, a bird flying atnight can use the stars to fly in the direction it wants to go.

The most likely scenario is that different bird speciesuse different ways to orient or navigate during migration.Each species probably uses one or more of these meth-ods, and the birds may rely primarily on one methodand use the others only if necessary. Our uncertainty asto the precise methods used by migratory birds is wellput by Illinois bird researcher Sam Robbins:

It is well known that large numbers of birds, aftertraveling hundreds of miles, flying mostly at night,succeed in reaching the exact location where theyspent the previous summer. What is not well known


is the type of guidance mechanism birds use inmigration. Visual images? Auditory images?Memory? Orientation to the stars? Orientation to theearth's magnetic field? My prediction: scientists,philosophers and poets will still be asking thesequestions years and years from now.

Compass UseThe class will need one compass per group, ideally thetype with a flat, plastic base. The arrow (or red end ofneedle) always points to magnetic north. Hold the com-pass level in front of you with the arrow on the baseplate pointed in the direction you want to travel. Turn thecompass housing so that "North" lines up with the arrowinside the housing. Walk in the direction you want totravel, keeping the arrow lined up with "North" on thecompass. The direction you want to travel is your head-ing, and it is measured in degrees. If you would likemore information, consider the handbook Be Expert withMap and Compass by Bjorn Kjellstrom.

Map out a simple (three- to five-point) orienteeringcourse for the class outside in the schoolyard, if possi-ble. Tie brightly colored ribbons around various markerssuch as trees, flagpoles, basketball goal posts and thefront door of school. It will be best if you cannot see allof these places from the starting point. On each ribbon,hang an index card.

Go through the course yourself. Begin with your back tothe starting point and determine the compass heading indegrees of your first landmark. This heading is the direc-tion you want to travel to reach the first landmark.Record this heading so that you can give it to studentsas they begin the course. Students will begin by turningthe compass housing so this heading lines up with thedirection of travel arrow. They will then turn their bodiesso the magnetic needle lines up with the north sign.

Walk to the first landmark. Next, put your back to thatlandmark, face the second landmark and take a com-pass reading. Mark this heading on the index card at thefirst landmark. This heading will tell students whichdirection to go next. Continue through the course, writ-ing compass headings on index cards at each landmark.Students will use these headings to locate successivelandmarks.

As a way to check that students have reached eachlandmark, put the letters of a scrambled word, such as"Migration," on the index cards. After you've mapped outthe course, go around to each index card and put a let-ter or two from this word on each card. The students willhave to record the letters as they get to each landmarkand then unscramble the word at the end.

You may want to place a few "false" landmarks withindex cards to make the course more challenging. Thiswill insure that students use compass headings to findthe landmarks and not just visual cues.

PROCEDURE1. Ask students how they know how to get from oneplace to another. Answers and discussion shouldinclude experience (memory), vision, verbal direc-tions from someone else, signs and other land-marks, maps, compasses, etc. Ask them how a birdknows where to fly. Answers may include some ofthe same ways people find direction, such as mem-ory, vision, landmarks, etc. But what about directionfor migration? How does a bird travel to a place it’snever been before? Tell the students they are goingto take an imaginary migration.

2. Divide the class into five cooperative groups.Demonstrate use of a compass to the class. Giveeach group a compass and have them practice witheach other. Tell them to practice by finding a particu-lar landmark, like a flagpole or basketball goal post,and determining its compass heading (e.g., 224degrees, 90 degrees, etc.). The groups are respon-sible for making sure each member understandscompass use.

3. Have student groups, one group at a time, completethe course as quickly as possible. Explain that theywill be competing with the other groups for themigration time. Give the first compass heading atthe starting point. One group member is responsiblefor reading the compass and orienting the group tothe first landmark. Tell them to record the letters ofthe scrambled word on the index card. Pass thecompass to another group member and move thedirection indicated to the next landmark.

4. Continue until the end of the course.5. After the migration, bring students together for a dis-cussion. Ask how escaping slaves made their waynorth to freedom without a compass. On a star map,ask students to point out the North Star. Relate thisstar to bird migration at night.

6. Ask students how this orienteering activity relates tobird migration. Discuss the different ways birdsdetermine which way to go when they migrate,including the use of the earth's magnetic field.

7. Ask students to relate how they functioned incooperative groups.

DISCUSSION1. In what ways is it easy to navigate like a bird? Howis it similar or different than navigating like a per-son? Would a map have helped? Do you think you


could migrate faster a second time?2. How does a bird's position in the sky give it anadvantage during migration? How would the triphave been easier if they could have "looked down"on their route prior to starting?

3. Ask students to relate their experiences in movingas a cooperative group. Could any one individualhave accomplished the migration as quickly?

4. Ask the question: "If you were alone in a boat in themiddle of an ocean (you don't know which ocean),would you rather have a compass or a map to findyour destination?" (Neither will get you there—youneed both. Birds have the equivalent of both!)

ASSESSMENT1. Students should, in one written paragraph, comparehuman and bird navigation methods.


CLASS TIME: one class period

MATERIALS: string or fishing line; short, straight sticks, fiveto 10 inches long (dowels, coat hangers, sticks); a variety ofobjects gathered by students to represent different life needsof Neotropical migrants and needs and wants of people; oldmagazines to search for pictures that represent needs

COMMON CORE STANDARDS: English language artsMS Writing 1, MS Writing 2, MS Writing 4, MS Writing 8,MS Speaking and Listening 1, MS Speaking and Listening 2,MS Speaking and Listening 4

NEXT GENERATION SCIENCE STANDARDS: 3-5-ETS1-1


The Balancing ActOVERVIEWStudents will create a mobile to demonstrate the bal-ance between people and nature.

CONCEPTSn People and some birds depend on forests for theirneeds.

n Birds are part of forest ecosystems.

OBJECTIVESStudents will be able to: 1) create a mobile representingthe balance of nature as it applies to the needs of birdsand the needs of people; and 2) recognize that peopleand birds share similar needs.

KEY POINTSn Both humans and birds have needs, some of whichare conflicting.

n People have additional things they want to maketheir lives more comfortable.

n These human needs and wants should be balancedwith bird needs.

PROCEDURE1. Read the poem, "The Chocoya," by MauricioChavarrío. Discuss the meaning of the poem andapply it to the unit. Tell students they'll be creatingan image of a balance between bird needs andhuman needs today, only in a different medium.

2. Divide the class into cooperative groups. Have eachgroup discuss and record: 1) the various things theythink migratory birds need to survive; 2) the variousthings people need to survive; and 3) things theyfeel people want and use to make their lives morecomfortable.

3. Have members of each group gather or makeobjects to represent each one of these needs orwants. For example, bird food could be represented

by a seed, a dead insect or one made out of con-struction paper, toothpicks and glue. Human foodcould be represented by a picture of a piece of fruit,a plastic replica, an empty milk container or apeanut shell. Nesting habitat could be representedby twigs, a bunch of grass or other nest material,while human shelter could be represented by aphoto or drawing of a house. Wintering habitat couldbe represented by a tree leaf or a picture of the sis-ter country, a safe migration route by a map of thewestern hemisphere with the migration route indicat-ed or a picture of clear skies. Nesting success couldbe represented by down feathers, a picture of eggsor a fledgling or an eggshell, while human reproduc-tion could be illustrated by pictures of a crib andbaby food, a teething ring or a baby rattle. Humanwants could be illustrated by a picture of a televisionor an empty soda can. Students should be allowedto choose their own representative objects.

4. Using these objects, each group is to construct aphysically well-balanced mobile. Everything neededby birds and humans must be represented. Themore things that are added to the mobile, the harderit will be to balance. The groups must then decide ifit is necessary (or possible) to include all of theirhuman wants.

5. Assign a member of each group to be a Checker tobe sure that all the members understand why eachitem is being included or left out. Have each groupmember sign the mobile when they are sure theyunderstand it.

6. Choose one group member from each group toexplain their mobile to the rest of the class. Discussthe balance desired between the needs of birds andhuman wants and needs. Point out that human deci-sions affect the balance and may help or harmbirds.

7. Discuss these words from the journal of thefamous preservationist, John Muir**: "When we try


to pick out anything by itself, we find that it isbound fast by a thousand invisible cords...to every-thing in the universe."

8. Ask how the group process functioned.

DISCUSSION1. Discuss what kinds of things the groups decided toinclude as "conveniences" and those they decidedto leave out.

2. Was it easier to balance the mobile with lessneeds? Were there any human needs that conflictedwith bird needs? Can people make decisions thatwill affect the balance so as to harm the birds? Tohelp the birds?

3. How does this mobile illustrate the balance ofnature, particularly birds and their habitat? How dohumans affect the balance? Who created themobiles? Do birds have the power to make deci-sions that affect the balance of the world they livein? Do humans? How many human needs could bemet through forest resources? For birds, whichneeds could be met through the forest? Move onepiece of a mobile by lifting it up or swinging it notice-ably. Did affecting one factor in the balance affectothers? Can people in the Midwest make decisionsthat affect people in Latin America or birds in LatinAmerica?

MODIFICATIONStudent groups could be instructed to build their mobilessuch that the things they feel are most necessary to birdand/or human survival have to be placed near the top,the less necessary, luxury items at the bottom of themobile.

ASSESSMENT1. Students should complete mobiles.2. Students should explain, either orally or in a writtenreport, how their mobile works.

**Muir, John. 1911. My First Summer in the Sierra. Houghton Mifflin,New York.

THE CHOCOYABy Mauricio Chavarría

Mauricio was a 10-year-old Nicaraguan boy when hewrote this poem.

One day I went up the mountainand I saw a mango treeand a chocoyo eating a ripe mangoand my mouth began to waterand I climbed the tree and started to pick mangos.

EL CHOCOYA

Un día fui al montey vi un palo de mangoy un chocoyo comiéndose un mango maduroy se me hizo agua la bocay me subí al palo a cortar mangos.

chocoya = a kind of parakeet; it flies in noisy flocks

Reprinted from Nicaraguan Peasant Poetry from Solentiname (1988)with permission of the translator, David Gullette, Simons College,Boston, Massachusetts.


PREPARATION: Make and hang trees prior to the classperiod each day for three days preceding discussion

CLASS TIME: 20-30 minutes

VOCABULARY: forest, ecosystem, forest interior

MATERIALS: large paper cut-outs of different-sized trees andshrubs (students can make these)

COMMON CORE STANDARDS: English language arts MS Writing 1, MS Writing 2, MS Writing 4, MS Writing 8,MS Reading 7, MS Reading 10


Defining A ForestOVERVIEWThrough simulation and discussion students define aforest.

CONCEPTSForests are complex ecosystems.

OBJECTIVESStudents will be able to describe some of the complexi-ties of a forest ecosystem.

KEY POINTSn Forests are dynamic and complex.n Forest ecosystems include all living and nonlivingcomponents.

n Forest ecosystems differ in significant ways fromtree plantations.

TEACHER BACKGROUNDForests are diverse communities of plants; they containanimals and inanimate parts of our environment such aswater, air, light and soil. Within these diverse communi-ties, plants and animals live and die in a cycle of compe-tition and harmony. Forest communities provide manyindispensable ecological services: they recycle wastes;help maintain the chemical composition of the atmos-phere; provide a home for wildlife; and play a major rolein determining the earth's climate. Forest ecosystems aredynamic and constantly changing. Trees continuallychange through their life cycle from germination of aseed, through the maturation of a seedling into a largetree and eventually death. Throughout this process, treesmodify the surrounding environment by their physicalpresence and biological processes. Since they are livingorganisms, they have physiological or normal living func-tions, such as respiration, nutrient and moisture intake,water evaporation from plant tissues (transpiration), foodproduction (photosynthesis) and reproduction. As thetrees live and associate with other organisms and theabiotic (nonliving) environment, the competition for lifeconstantly influences and perpetuates the change.

A majority of Illinois’ wildlife, including many Neotropicalmigratory bird populations, depend heavily on the forestresource for food and shelter. While Neotropicalmigrants can be found in grasslands, wetlands and for-est edges, many species spend most of their time in theforest interior. Each species belongs to a particular feed-ing guild, such as seed-eating, ground insect-feeding,foliage-gleaning (searching foliage for invertebrates andfruit) or sap-sucking. Birds use different parts of the for-est structure, searching for food in different layers of theforest. The ovenbird walks along the forest floor as itmethodically inspects the leaf litter for insects. Thewood thrush forages on the ground, picking up insectsand, occasionally, fruit. Above them, American redstartshover while they glean foliage and try to catch theinsects they flush. Vireos frequenting the same branch-es as the redstarts slowly search for larger insect prey.The magnolia warbler (Dendroica magnolia), with its tailfanned, rapidly hops between branches, picking insectsfrom the bottom surfaces of leaves.

These birds also utilize different parts of the forest struc-ture for nest sites. Ovenbirds construct their oven-shaped nests on the forest floor. Female wood thrushesbuild cup-shaped nests six to 50 feet high in treebranches. Both male and female magnolia warblerscontribute to building their nest in tree or shrub branch-es just one to 10 feet from the ground.

Just as they do in temperate forests, wildlife in tropicalrain forests use different layers of the forest. In foreststhere are four layers: emergent; canopy; understory;and forest floor. In the tropical rain forest, most of theplants and animals live just below the canopy in the pro-tection of the understory. For example, Wallace's flyingfrog (Rhacophorus nigropalmatus) finds its food andwater in bromeliad plants and large leaves of the under-story. The crested wood partridge (Rollulus rouloul), onthe other hand, a plump green bird resembling a pheas-ant, runs along the forest floor in search of large fruits,seeds, beetles and ants.


In addition to utilizing forests for their own needs, wildlifecontribute many things to the forest ecosystem. Eachanimal plays a role in the function of the forest. Squirrelsare familiar agents of seed dispersal, integral to the for-est as they collect and disperse acorns and other nuts.Likewise, some birds act as seed-dispersing agents forcertain vegetation, like berries, by eating the seeds withthe fruit, then leaving the seeds in their droppings somedistance away from the source plant. The majority ofNeotropical migratory forest birds feed on insects. Intemperate regions of North America, these birds maycontrol certain defoliating insects, like the spruce bud-worm (Choristoneura fumiferana) in some stands ofyoung trees. In the rain forest, complex interrelation-ships between the plants and animals show strong inter-dependencies among species. Some ant species, forexample, raise their young and grow fungus gardensinside the branches of a tree. In return for this shelter,the ants protect the tree from other insects and brows-ing animals. Brilliantly colored male orchid bees obtainfood from orchids while transporting pollen necessaryfor the orchid's reproduction.

These descriptions begin to reveal the complexity anddiversity of forests. When trees are planted for harvestin pine plantations, much of this natural diversity is lost.The trees in a plantation are often of the same size, ageand species. The structure is similar throughout the for-est and does not provide the varied habitat layers evi-dent in a natural, uneven-aged forest. Other plant andanimal life is therefore less diverse.

People who manage forests must consider differentkinds of birds and their needs, as well as the needs ofother plants and animals in the forest. Through carefulconsideration we can manage the whole forest ecosys-tem, with all its complexities and interdependencies.

PROCEDURE1. Cut out large paper silhouettes of different-sizedtrees and shrubs ahead of time. (You may ask stu-dents to do this task.) Hang a couple from the ceil-ing in the middle of the classroom prior to class. Saynothing about them to the class.

2. During the next three days add more trees until youhave a symbolic replica of a small forest and stu-dent curiosity is piqued.

3. On the fourth day ask why the trees are hangingfrom the ceiling and what they represent. What con-stitutes a forest? Have students brainstorm defini-tions of a forest and write their ideas on the board.

4. Have one student stand up. Tell the class this stu-dent represents a tree. Ask: Is this one tree a for-est? Have a few more students stand and representmore trees. Ask: Is it a forest now? Make the point

that a small woodlot will work as habitat for somewildlife, but some, like the ovenbird, need a biggertract of forest that has an "interior." What do weneed to do to make it a forest? Invite students tosuggest and role play any parts of a forest, includingother plants, animals and inanimate objects. If stu-dents are stuck, brainstorm all the things that are ina forest. Make the point that forest ecosystemsinclude all living and nonliving components.

5. Ask whether all the trees are the same size. Thesame age? Have students representing trees try tomake themselves the same height and stand inrows. Discuss how a plantation or an orchard is dif-ferent from a natural forest. Provide students withbackground information on how different birds usedifferent parts of the forest structure.

DISCUSSION1. What purposes does a forest serve to the environ-ment? To wildlife? To people? What do some birdsobtain from the forest? What services do birds pro-vide the forest?

EXTENSIONS1. Make the point that forests are dynamic. Have onestudent stand up with arms outstretched, represent-ing a species that thrives in an open area andneeds lots of sunlight. It reproduces and more treesgrow in the area. Have more students stand up.When there's no room for more students to standwith arms outstretched without touching, point outthat after a while, the species that needs lots of lightwon't be able to reproduce. Trees that can grow inshade will take over and gradually another type oftree will become dominant. This represents thedynamic change of species composition in a forest.

2. Take the students out to a wooded area nearschool. Let them explore the area and examine thestructure and diversity of life in it. What birds dothey see or hear? Take them to an area recentlycleared for a subdivision or similar land conversion.What birds do they see or hear?

3. Have student groups use water colors or pastels todevelop a visual image of various forest settings.

4. Discuss how the poem, "It's Five-Thirty," byNicaraguan poet Felipe Peña, defines the forest.

ASSESSMENT1. Ask students to write a paragraph on what a forestis. They should define it as a complex ecosystem,including plants, animals and other organisms.

2. Students should be able to explain a contributionbirds make to the forest.


IT'S FIVE-THIRTYBy Felipe Peña

It's five-thirty in the afternoon, the weather is calmno sound of the spotter plane that patrols the borderonly the mumblemumble of some compañeros talking in their lean-toand birdsongs from the mountain as the evening closes in -the dove, the guásthe partridge that whistles like someone lost in the woodsthe choschosthe howler monkeys chanting con con conthe woodpecker pecking a dead limband the monkeys having fun in the leafy treesshrieking and throwing dry sticks.This afternoon the crickets are all turned onthey sing ririri as though to announce the rain that starts to fall.The mountain has clouded over, some of us are going to take up our posts,others are going to sleep without their supper.

SON LAS CINCO Y MEDIASon las 5 y media de la tarde, el tiempo está serenono se oye el sonido de la avioneta que vigila la fronterasólo el gurún gurún de los compañeros que hablan desde sus champasy el canto de los pájaros en la montaña al atardecerla gongolona el guásla perdiz que silba como persona perdida en los bosquesel choschóslos congos que cantan con con conel pájaro carpintero picotea en un palo secoy los monos que hacen gracias en los árboles frondososchillan y botan ramas secas.Esta tarde más que las otras se han animado más los grillosque cantan ri ri ri como si anunciaran la lluvia que empieza a caerla montaña se ha oscuredico, nosotros vamos a hacer la postalos otros a dormir sin haber cenado.

guás = a long bird; makes a raucous cry

choschos = a small flycatcher with a bright yellow breast

Felipe was captured in 1977 during a raid against Somoza's guard because he stayed in position to cover the retreat of his friends. He was torturedand held in prison for almost a year and then later died in battle. Reprinted from Nicaraguan Peasant Poetry from Solentiname (1988) with permissionof the translator, David Gullette, Simons College, Boston, Massachusetts.


PREPARATION: Rope off a portion of the room and expandthis restricted area before class daily for three days.

CLASS TIME: t20 minutes

VOCABULARY: habitat, carrying capacity

MATERIALS: rope to stretch across the classroom; signreading “Off-limits—Do Not Enter!”

COMMON CORE STANDARDS: English language artsMS Writing 4, MS Speaking and Listening 1, MS Speakingand Listening 2, MS Speaking and Listening 4


Habitat SqueezeOVERVIEWThrough a simulation, students experience habitat lossover time.

CONCEPTSHuman use and management of forests affects birdpopulations.

OBJECTIVESStudents will be able to: 1) define carrying capacity; and2) recognize that reduced size and quality of a habitatadds stress to birds and other wildlife populations.

KEY POINTSReducing size and/or quality of forest habitat reduces thecarrying capacity of the forest for interior forest birds.

TEACHER BACKGROUNDCarrying capacity is defined as the population that agiven area, such as a forest, will support without eitherthe area or the population undergoing deterioration. It isa dynamic equilibrium established between any life formand its environment. For example, a particular forestmay be capable of providing habitat (nesting site, foodresources and water) for 100 birds of one species. If thepopulation is slightly under 100, neither the birds nor theforest will suffer. If the population exceeds 100, the for-est ecosystem is strained, and each bird is subject tostress with the possible death of some individuals.

Many factors can change an area by either increasing ordecreasing the carrying capacity. Some factors are relatedto the size of the habitat; others are related to the quality ofthe habitat. For example, an increase in understory shrubsmay provide habitat for a particular bird species or groupof birds, increasing the carrying capacity of the forest forthat bird population without increasing the size of the for-est. In another example, a bird species may be dependentupon a stream going through the forest for its water supply.If the stream flow is decreased or eliminated so that it nolonger travels through the forest, that forest then has adecreased carrying capacity for that bird species.

Human habitat may be considered in terms of carryingcapacity as well. A researcher may indicate that a partic-ular region has a carrying capacity of 10,000 humans.However, people often modify their surroundings in orderto increase the carrying capacity of an area, for example,importing food from outside the area. Some people thinkwe have exceeded the earth's carrying capacity for thehuman population, the result being disease, starvation,war and environmental degradation. A populationexceeding the area's carrying capacity may continue toexist with both the area and some individuals beingstressed. In the long run, a population that exceeds thecarrying capacity of an area is considered unsustainable.

Much of the reduction of interior migratory forest birdpopulations is the result of the loss of forest habitat forthese birds, both here and in their wintering grounds. Assuitable forest habitat is reduced, the carrying capacityof the land is reduced for those birds dependent on theforest interior. Birds that depend on fields or forestedges may experience an increase in carrying capacityif forest cover is reduced and not built over.

A picture of forest cover across the United States at fourperiods in time shows the national changes in largetracts of forests (Appendix F). As the maps show, largetracts of forest cover declined nationally from the year1620 to a low around 1920, but since then, they havebeen increasing. Illinois maps show a similar trend.These maps include all tree coverage, small woodlotsand savannas, not just large tracts. In Illinois, foresthabitat acreage has continually increased from a low ofless than one million acres in the early 1900s to nearly15 million acres today.

One present concern regarding loss of forest habitat forforest interior birds is the reduction of large tracts of for-est, especially in southern Illinois. In addition, those areasdeforested consist of land that for the most part is beingor has been converted to other nonforest uses, such asurban development, subdivisions and farms. These landconversions generally have a long-term effect on the


landscape and the habitat available for a variety of birds.Aside from loss of habitat area, these conversions reducethe quality of habitat for birds that nest in forests. Thisdecrease in habitat size and quality contributes to birdpopulation declines by allowing predators to access song-bird nests. For example, suburbanization opens up theforest to nest predators that are associated with humanpopulations, such as raccoons (Procyon lotor), stripedskunks (Mephitis mephitis), Virginia opossums (Didelphisvirginianus) and house cats (Felis catus), plus avian nestpredators such as American crows (Corvus brachyrhyn-chos), blue jays (Cyanocitta cristata) and common grack-les (Quiscalus quiscula). Even in the country, free-rangingcats are associated with human populations and are con-sidered a threat to bird populations. One study indicatesthat 14 million birds are killed by rural free-ranging cats inIllinois each year.

While land conversion away from forests represents theloss of habitat for forest birds, it may simultaneouslyincrease the carrying capacity of Illinois for people andother nonforest wildlife species, including some birds. Thequestion becomes, is there a balance that is sustainablefor birds and people?

PROCEDURE1. Before students enter the classroom, stretch a ropeacross one small corner of the room and hang the"Off-limits—Do Not Enter" sign on it. (Use an areathat is not absolutely essential for the functioning ofthe class.) Any furniture that can be moved shouldbe removed from this area and crowded into therest of the room.

2. When students ask about the rope and the sign,explain that it's part of an experiment, and you'll dis-cuss it later in the week. Explain that, until then, thearea behind the rope is, indeed, "off-limits," and noone is to enter it for any reason. The students willsimply have to learn to function in a slightly smallerspace than they are used to. Continue your normalday's activities.

3. Before the students enter the class the next day,move the rope to slightly enlarge the restricted area.Remove any objects from the restricted area andcrowd them into the rest of the room.

4. Continue this process for the next two days or leastlong enough to cause everyone to feel cramped.

5. Ask students how they felt about the rope and theexpanding restricted area. Ask why the rope wasthere. Discuss the effects of the rope. At what pointdid it interfere with student activities? How muchmore could the off-limits area have been expandedbefore it fully impaired the class' function?

6. Introduce the phrase "carrying capacity." Ask how the

rope affected the carrying capacity of the classroom.If their numbers exceed the carrying capacity of theirhabitat, how would birds be affected? How mighthabitat loss in one part of the world affect anotherpart of the world? Make the point that solving thesekinds of problems requires a global perspective.

DISCUSSION1. Did the size of the off-limits area on one side of theroom affect students on the other side of the room?When? How? Where would students have gonethen? What effect would moving out of the class-room have on other people and on the way theclass functioned?

2. Do birds that depend on one type of habitat alwayshave the option of moving somewhere else?

3. What will birds do if there is not enough nesting ter-ritory or food to sustain them? Humans may bepushing forest bird populations to the limits of sur-vival by removing larger and larger sections of suit-able habitat. What are people using the land forwhen forest is removed? Are these human actionsincreasing or improving habitat for other birds orwildlife species?

4. Is there a carrying capacity for people in the class-room? In a city? In Illinois? In Latin America? In theworld? How much loss of habitat is allowable? Howmuch is too much?

EXTENSIONS1. Have students research how much change hasoccurred in forests in their community over the last200 years. County environmental organizationsmight be able to provide information about pre-European-settlement vegetation in the area.Topographic maps and aerial photos made yearsapart will show changes in forest cover. Anothersource of interesting first-hand information abouthow the land use of the area has changed over sev-eral generations can come from the elderly commu-nity. Have students visit nursing homes or seniorcenters and interview the residents to determine ifthey remember more or less forest intact when theywere young. See if they have noticed any changesin the abundance of birds and other wildlife.

ASSESSMENT1. Have students write a brief explanation of why the"Keep Out" rope marked off part of the classroom(i.e., why you did this activity).

2. Students should be able to write a reasonabledefinition of carrying capacity.



VOCABULARY: flyways

MATERIALS: copies of the Americas map included in thisactivity; colored pencils



A Round Trip TicketOVERVIEWStudents plan a migration route for a Neotropicalmigrant to learn about migration.

CONCEPTSn Some birds migrate to meet their habitat needs.n Migratory birds depend on habitat in Latin America,the Midwest and along flyways.

OBJECTIVESStudents will be able to: 1) describe the possible migrationpatterns of their Neotropical migrant; and 2) generalizeabout the migration patterns of other Neotropical migrants.

KEY POINTSn There are several key migration routes forNeotropical migratory birds.

n Maintaining suitable habitat all along these migratoryroutes is an important component of bird conservation.

TEACHER BACKGROUNDWhy would a bird migrate more than 2,000 miles toIllinois each spring? During the trip the bird faces a myri-ad of natural and humanmade hazards—storms, preda-tors, aerial obstructions, pollution—that endanger its life.A successful trip requires an enormous amount of pre-cious energy. Add to that the energy resources (food) andhabitat resources (such as shelter and nesting materials)needed to find and defend a new territory, build a nestand raise young. And then, after spending only a coupleof months here, the bird repeats its long and hazardousjourney to return to Latin America! Most of the birds thatwinter in Latin America and migrate to Illinois undertakethis journey to and from North America every year. Weoften speak of these birds as "our" birds. In fact, theyspend less than one-third of every year in Illinois and therest of their time is spent in migration or the tropics.

The benefits birds receive by leaving the tropics to breedmore than 2,000 miles away in Illinois must more than

compensate for the energy expenditure and risks associ-ated with migration. The reasons for this regular, seasonalmigration are varied but can be summarized as follows:birds have adapted to seek out suitable environments dur-ing each part of the year. Latin America may provide muchof what a bird needs to breed, but resources and habitatare better and more numerous in Illinois. Additionally,fewer competitors and predators in northern breedinggrounds make it more suitable than the tropics for nesting.

The overriding reason for migrating south in the fall isthe climate and its effect on a bird's ability to obtainfood. Many bird species avoid the long, cold winter inthe north, where food is scarce and daylight hours nec-essary to find food are limited. Some bird species suchas northern cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis) and chick-adees (Poecile spp.) are adapted to our northern win-ters, but most songbirds make the long journey south topoints such as Mexico or South America where wintersare comparatively mild. Warmer temperatures reduce abird's food demands because it is less costly to maintainbody temperature in the tropics. Also, tropical foodresources such as plants and insects are more plentifuland accessible during the winter.

While overwintering without the pressure of obtainingbreeding territories and extra resources required forreproducing, migratory bird species can reside in thesmaller geographic area of the tropics. However, duringbreeding season, species have greater energy and terri-torial demands. Males expend energy finding anddefending a territory to provide those resources. Matingpairs need materials and energy to build a nest. Thefemale needs extra food resources necessary for devel-oping eggs. And the pair, together or individually, musthave enough food for their young. Although areas in thetropics may provide the food resources birds need tosuccessfully breed, there is not enough for all birdspecies to do the same. Since places like Illinoisbecome hospitable and produce plentiful resources inthe warmer months, many species spread out over a


larger geographic area and come here to reproduce,giving them a greater chance of finding and obtainingthe resources needed for reproductive success.

Many migratory birds don't take a straight route. Theyfollow land patterns for navigation and stay close toresources. There is very little data on the exact migra-tion routes of most birds. We don't know the exact routemany Neotropical migrants take, or if they take thesame route flying south as north. Some species migrateat night. Not much is known about the speed of flight ofmost species during migration. One study suggests thatovenbirds travel at approximately 64 km per hour. Notall migratory birds that nest in forests spend the winterin forests, but the ovenbird does.

A bird migrating from Canada across the United Statesto Central America might hear three human languages.Here are some basic words in each language.

PROCEDURE1. Distribute a copy of the map and colored pencils toeach student.

2. Ask students what they remember about Neotropicalmigrants and their migration. Ask students whythese birds spend their breeding season in NorthAmerica, including Illinois, and winter in LatinAmerica. On a map, point out the generalizedbreeding and winter ranges of the species.

3. Have each student select a Neotropical migrant andon the map draw its breeding range with one colorand its wintering range in another. You may want toallow students to use Appendix A to gatherNeotropical migrant information.

4. Have the class plan a travel route for a species thatbreeds in Illinois and winters in Latin America.Instruct the students to estimate the distance theirbird travels via this route, using a class map with amileage scale. Assume this species can fly at 64kilometers per hour (40 miles/hour), ask students tocalculate the amount of time a bird must spend inflight during one year's migration.

5. Have some students share the route they havedetermined and explain why they chose that route.

6. Have students list the states and nations through

which their migrating bird passes. Using the rangemaps of the species, identify the different languagesthat might be spoken in various countries. In theselanguages, what is the word for bird, forest, tree andfriend?

7. Have students calculate how long it would take aperson to travel the distance their bird travels bywalking (4.9 km/hour or 3 miles/hour) or by car (105km/hour or 65 miles/hour).

8. Emphasize the points that many migratory birdstravel a long distance and that there are several keymigration routes. Maintaining these migration routesfor the birds is an important part of any Neotropicalmigratory bird conservation plan.

DISCUSSION1. What is the shortest route? Is this the easiest route,or does it require long flights over water? What dobirds need along their migration route? Do you thinkeach species uses the same route during the springand fall migration? Why or why not?

EXTENSIONS1. Use information gathered from library research to dothis activity with a number of species of migrants.Compare the ranges and migration patterns of thesespecies.

2. Paint or use chalk to make a scale map of Northand Latin America on a large parking lot or pavedplayground area. Walk along the migration routes ofthe birds. Use the map to demonstrate locations ofIllinois, Latin American countries and migratory fly-ways to elementary school children or others.

English Spanish Frenchbird ave or pájaro oiseauforest selva or bosque forêttree arbol arbrefriends amigos amis


CLASS TIME: one to one and one-half class periods

VOCABULARY: flyways, habitat

MATERIALS: construction paper bases; buttons, bottle caps,pasta or similar items; copies of population data sheet;paper for population graph


NEXT GENERATION SCIENCE STANDARDS: MS-LS2-1


Migration MigrainesOVERVIEWBy simulating migration on a playing field, students seeincreases in human populations correlated with decreas-es in bird habitats and populations.

CONCEPTSn Bird populations are affected by human impact ontheir habitats.

n Some birds migrate to meet their habitat needs.n Migratory birds depend on habitat in Latin America,the Midwest and along flyways. Human actions thatimpact the forest environment have a global effect.

OBJECTIVESStudents will be able to: 1) describe natural and human-induced factors affecting bird populations; and 2) explainhow increasing human populations can have a negativeeffect on some bird populations.

KEY POINTSn When humans alter forests on the wintering ground,the breeding ground or at stopover points, migratorybird populations are affected.

n As human populations increase, suitable bird habitatdecreases.

TEACHER BACKGROUNDMigratory birds require suitable habitat and environmen-tal conditions in breeding grounds, wintering groundsand along migratory flyways. A reduction in quantity orquality of habitat in any one of these areas may lead topopulation declines in the birds dependent upon them.The birds that depend on forests for their northern nest-ing ground may live in scrub or some habitat other thaninterior forests in the wintering ground. The ovenbird isone species that requires forest habitat in both places.

People and some migratory birds depend on forests fortheir needs. In addition to forests, people need farms,cities, highways and housing. To meet these needs, we

have often deforested land. However, this land conver-sion can conflict with the needs of those birds thatdepend on forests. In Latin America, forests were highlydisrupted by the Maya civilization. However, that was athousand years ago and reforestation has occurred. InNorth America, forests were most severely disrupted inthe late 1800s and early 1900s. They are now slowlyrecovering. While the stories of Paul Bunyan were pureexaggeration, the logging industry had a profound effectupon the land at the time. As human populations contin-ue to increase, changes in land use, road constructionand expansion of cities and farmlands continue to affectour forests. In Latin America, where the human popula-tion is increasing at a rapid rate, deforestation is occur-ring at an incredible speed. Forest ecosystems arealways in a state of change, and bird populations arealways in a state of flux. But just as it takes many yearsfor forests to regenerate, so it takes many generationsfor a species to adapt to habitat changes. When somany changes happen so fast, the birds and otherwildlife cannot adjust. Sustainable, wise use of forestland is required to conserve these birds and their foresthomes. Conservation becomes more challenging ashuman populations increase.

There are many factors, natural and human-induced, thatcontribute to making habitat more or less suitable formigratory birds. Some natural factors are short-term. Ayear of low rainfall causing short-term drought or a tem-porary decline in insect populations that provide food forbirds may cause a temporary strain on migratory birdpopulations. A year of plentiful rainfall or an insect out-break may be beneficial to birds. Other natural factorsmay be long term, such as habitat destruction from largestorms or fires or reduction in the quality of a foodsource through disease. Favorable climatic trends mightaffect bird populations positively over the long-term.

While natural factors are generally beyond our control,there are many human-related factors affecting migrato-ry bird populations. Negative factors might be short-term, such as illegal hunting pressure, or long-term,


such as contamination of a water supply through pollu-tion or land conversion and deforestation. People alsocan have beneficial effects on migratory birds throughhabitat protection, management and restoration.Research about migratory bird habitat needs can pro-vide valuable information to implement conservationstrategies in all the Americas.

While migratory birds comprise a large portion of thebirds in North America, they only comprise a small per-centage of the birds in Latin America. The migratorybirds that winter in Central America may have to com-pete with large numbers of resident birds both for habi-tat and human acknowledgment of importance. The per-spective on the fate of Neotropical migrants may also bedifferent in Latin America because deforestation therefrequently occurs for human subsistence needs—foragriculture, cattle grazing or firewood—or for export oftimber for national income. In a war-torn nation, such asNicaragua, people are likely to focus more on rebuildingtheir own lives than in worrying about the demise of afew seldom-seen birds. Yet research indicates that dis-ruptions in habitat both in North and Latin America areaffecting many of the Neotropical migrants adversely.

PROCEDURE1. Discuss the need for breeding, wintering and flywayhabitats for migratory birds. Brainstorm factorsaffecting habitat, including those that are positiveand negative, natural and human-related and short-and long-term.

2. Have students count off by fours. Groups 1, 2 and 3will be "ovenbirds." Group 4 will be “people.” Dividethe "people" into two groups: North American andLatin American. Each group of "people" shouldappoint an individual responsible for recording thenumber of birds that survive the migration (success-fully find a base) as well as the number of "people"in the group at each round of the activity. Give eachof these recorders a copy of the "Population DataSheet" found at the end of this activity.

3. Create a playing field for the students with exactlyone green paper base for each bird at each end.Explain that each base represents forest habitat forone bird. Designate one end the North Americanbreeding ground and one the Latin American winter-ing ground. Place the bases closer together on thewintering ground to represent the smaller land areaavailable for migratory birds. In between, place sev-eral bases to represent stopover points duringmigration. At the beginning of each round depositbuttons, bottle caps, pasta or similar items by thestopover points to represent food. At first, make surethere are enough “food” pieces for each "bird" toretrieve one.

4. Start the activity with "ovenbirds" in the winteringground in Latin America. Each bird must have onefoot on a base to indicate that it has found adequatehabitat. No more than one “bird” may have its footon a base at a time.

5. At your signal, the birds must "fly" by running andflapping their arms to the breeding ground. As oven-birds, they should say "teacher, teacher, teacher" asthey fly. They must land at one stopover point andsay "teacher, teacher, teacher" before continuing on.Only one bird may be at a stopover base at one time.Each bird must pick up a button (or whichever itemyou used) at a stopover point. At the breeding end inNorth America, each bird must put a foot on a base.

6. While birds stop at the stopover base en routenorth, the "people" in North America must confer toname a human-related cause of deforestation (suchas to build houses or furniture, to make paper prod-ucts, to build highways and roads, to create farm-land, to build factories, to build shopping malls).Their land-use decision reduces the forest habitatin the breeding ground, according to the number of"people" in the group. Remove one base for threepeople, two bases for four to six people, threebases for seven to nine people or four bases for 10to 12 people in that continent. Have birds migrateto North America. Those that do not find a baseare dead and become people, to represent thehuman population growth as the benefit from useof the forest land.

7. To even the number of bases in Latin America,announce that a hurricane has destroyed some for-est in Latin America: remove one base. Anytime it'snecessary to remove an extra base to limit the habi-tat more so some birds will "die," the teacher caninject a natural disaster into the game and remove abase or two while the "ovenbirds" are at the otherend of the playing field.

8. Then tell the "people" in the wintering grounds toconfer to name a human-related cause of deforesta-tion (such as farming, cutting firewood, raising cat-tle, building houses and villages, selling timber forfurniture and other products) and remove the num-ber of bases corresponding to their population.Have the "ovenbirds" migrate again. The birds thatcannot find a base when they migrate die andbecome people.

9. When the forests are being rapidly reduced, add theoption of making land-use decisions that increase orprotect forests. When students choose one of theseoptions, add a base, and the corresponding numberof students may return as birds; however, if there isnot adequate habitat at the other end of the migra-tion, the bird population will decrease again rapidly.


10. Continue the migrations until it becomes evidentthat the human population is growing at a rapid rate,and the birds are threatened by lack of habitat.Point out that the land-use decisions we make ashumans can significantly affect bird populations,even though natural factors cannot be controlled.

11. Have the students who recorded the human andbird populations consolidate their data and fill in thelast column on the Population Data Sheet. Theyshould then plot the numbers on a graph. The graphshould show that, as the people increased in num-bers, the birds decreased in numbers.

DISCUSSION1. How did changes in the forest affect the birds?Which affected the birds first: changes in nesting,wintering or stopover areas? Can people alwayscontrol habitat changes?

2. How did growth of human populations affect theavailability of forest habitat and therefore birdpopulations?

3. Who generally makes land-use decisions? Wholooks out for the interests of birds? Why do people

sometimes make land-use decisions that adverselyaffect bird populations? What effect does humanpopulation growth have on these decisions?Compare reasons for deforestation between Northand Latin America. Are they similar?

MODIFICATIONAfter the correlation between increasing human popula-tions and decreasing bird populations has been demon-strated, add another obstacle to migration: place lessfood on stopover points to represent degradation of fly-way stopover habitat. Or, stop the migration in mid-flightto remove a stopover base (and the bird resting there),either by human or natural cause. Any bird that cannotobtain food from a stopover cannot migrate successfullyand must wait on the sidelines.

If bird populations decline quickly, start over, this timereducing only one habitat area (North America, LatinAmerica or stopovers) and point out that the end resultis basically the same to migratory birds because theydepend on habitats in more than one place, thus the titleof the unit: One Bird—Two Habitats.

EXTENSION1. Have students list some reasons why humans alterhabitats in ways that may hurt migratory bird popu-lations. Have them do research and then graphhuman population growth in the United States andLatin America over the last 200 years. Which of thereasons for changing bird habitat that the studentslisted can be directly related to human populationgrowth?

ASSESSMENT1. Students should be able to analyze the grapheddata and explain what it means.

© 2001 Council for Environmental Education. Adapted with permissionfrom Project WILD.


POPULATION DATA SHEET

ROUND LATIN AMERICA NORTH AMERICA TOTAL NUMBERS

Start# people _____

+ # birds _____

# people ______=

# birds _____

# people _____

# birds _____

Round #_____

# people _____+

# birds _____

# people _____=

# birds _____Reason for habitat loss___________________

# people _____

# birds _____

Round #_____

# people _____+

# birds _____

# people _____=


# people _____

# birds _____

Round #_____

# people _____+

# birds _____

# people _____=


# people _____

# birds _____

Round #_____

# people _____+

# birds _____

# people _____=


# people _____

# birds _____

Round #_____

# people _____+

# birds _____

# people _____=


# people _____

# birds _____

Round #_____

# people _____+

# birds _____

# people _____=


# people _____

# birds _____

Round #_____

# people _____+

# birds _____

# people _____=


# people _____

# birds _____

0

Photocopy enough sheets to complete the activity.



VOCABULARY: scientific inquiry

COMMON CORE STANDARDS: English language artsMS Writing 1, MS Writing 2, MS Writing 4, MS Writing 8,MS Speaking and Listening 1, MS Speaking and Listening 2,MS Speaking and Listening 4


Designing ResearchersOVERVIEWStudents practice scientific inquiry by proposing aresearch design to study populations of Neotropicalmigrants.

CONCEPTSScientific inquiry, including posing problems, solvingproblems and persuasion can be used for the study,management and conservation of bird populations andforest ecosystems.

OBJECTIVESStudents will be able to: 1) state the components of sci-entific inquiry; and 2) propose a research design to studythe distribution of a species of Neotropical migrant.

KEY POINTSn Scientific inquiry includes posing problems, solvingproblems and persuasion.

n There are different ways to gather scientific informa-tion about birds.

TEACHER BACKGROUNDIn this activity, students review the process of scientificinquiry and the "Three Ps:" problem posing; problemsolving; and peer persuasion.

Have students recall a Neotropical migrant that theyhave already been introduced to that lives in the forest.Their task will be to devise potential ways to determinethe location and number of this bird in their county.Students don't have to carry out the actual research butcan share their proposal with class members. Theemphasis here is on scientific inquiry. Encourage stu-dents to be creative in making proposals to find theanswers. Place little emphasis on what you know aboutpopulation censusing and allow students to speculate.

To estimate the number of birds in a particular area,monitoring is done over a period of time, such as 10

days. Different methods are then used to census birdsin the area. Integral to any census is detailed, accuratejournal-keeping.

A point count is considered an efficient method forcounting birds in forested habitats. At a specified time ofday (usually between 5:00 a.m. and 9:00 a.m.), anobserver stands in one spot for a specified amount oftime (such as three minutes) and records all birds heardor seen within a certain distance. This process is repeat-ed at many spots, over the course of several days. Thedata are recorded on a map.

Strip transects are another common method for censusingbirds. Strip transects are similar to point counts, but theobserver is moving along a specified path while recordingbirds seen or heard within a certain distance from thepath. This method is more effective in open spaces.

Bird census methods are not infallible. Differentresearchers may have different abilities to hear or seebirds. In addition, bird identification skills vary with theindividual. The time of year is important for identifyingbirds by sound, since birds are more noticeably vocalduring the spring mating season. It cannot necessarilybe assumed that every male calling is successfullymated, either. Some birds continue to call in search of amate. Hearing one bird does not necessarily mean thatmore are present. Not hearing any birds does not neces-sarily mean that none are present. It just means thatnone happen to be vocal or visible during that bird obser-vation time. It is also difficult to ensure that the same birdis not identified more than once, at different times or dif-ferent places or by different observers. Despite these dif-ficulties, bird census techniques continue to be a rela-tively successful way to estimate bird populations.

Group proposals should include an introduction (a briefdescription of the question) and a methods section(detailed procedures for answering the question). Forexample, one group's proposal might be to select a


sample of forest areas in the county, schedule visits tothe sample forests over a 10-day period and count thenumber of birds in the sample forests by walkingthrough the forests and stopping every 100 paces to lis-ten for these birds. Peer review of this proposal mightinclude questions such as: What time of year should thisbe done?; Are you also collecting data on the size andtype of forests you visit?

PROCEDURES1. Review the process of scientific inquiry with stu-dents. You will be giving them a research question(problem posing), and they will need to propose aresearch design to answer the question (problemsolving) and then present the proposal to the classfor peer critique (peer persuasion).

2. Divide the class into groups of four to five studentseach. Tell students they will be taking the role ofresearchers. Have groups propose a method toaddress the following problem: “Research has indi-cated that (insert bird species) populations may bedeclining in some places. To understand more aboutwhere these birds live and what may be happeningto them, we need data. Your problem is to determinewhere these birds are found in your county and todetermine approximately how many there are.”

3. Student groups should think through this problemand write a proposal for their research. Make it clearthat students will not have to actually conduct theresearch, so they can think beyond their own imme-diate resources. Questions such as "How can youtell when there's a (insert species name) in thewoods?" may help prompt student thinking.Students may suggest ways to survey differentwoodlands around the county to listen for thesebirds. How would they know where forest plots arelocated in their county? What time of year wouldthey conduct this research? What time of day?Where might they look to find any previousresearch? They may suggest looking for last year'snests during the winter. How would they know whatthe nest of this bird looks like or where it would befound in the forest? Encourage creativity.

4. Give students the rest of the period to design theirresearch proposals. Suggest that they use studyhalls or time after school to conduct any backgroundresearch.

5. The next day, have student groups write a formalproposal, then present their ideas to the class forreview. Reviewers should be able to point out poten-tial flaws in the research designs, and presenters

should be able to persuade the class that theirdesign will work.

6. Discuss how the data to be collected might aidresearchers in bird conservation. Show how thisactivity follows a process of scientific inquiry neces-sary for any research. Incorporate information onbird censusing techniques into the discussion.

DISCUSSION1. What other kinds of information would studentsneed to study this bird? Did this activity generatemore questions?

2. How varied were the research designs? What otherways could researchers census bird populations?

3. How easy or hard was it to create a proposal as agroup? What kind of expertise would your groupneed to actually carry out this research? Was it diffi-cult to persuade other class members that yourresearch design had merit?

EXTENSIONS1. Using the tables on the following pages, have stu-dents graph trends of some select migratory birdpopulations in Illinois from 1966-1994. Some graphscould include a bar graph showing all birds, birdswith population decreases (negative numbers) orincreases (positive numbers) or graphs of the popu-lation trends for each sampling period, after whichstudents should compare the three graphs.

2. Take the class on a field trip to a large wooded parkand conduct point counts to listen for birds.

3. Contact the Illinois Department of Natural Resources(http://www.dnr.illinois.gov/conservation/NaturalHeritage/Pages/Home.aspx), the IllinoisOrnithological Society (http://www.illinoisbirds.org) orthe Illinois Audubon Society (217-544-2473;http://www.illinoisaudubon.org) to find out about cur-rent bird research topics.

4. Pair students with experienced birders to participatein a bird census.

ASSESSMENT1. Assess group proposals based on how well theyaddress the research question.

2. Evaluate students' abilities to persuade class mem-bers of the merits of their proposal.

http://www.illinoisaudubon.org

http://www.illinoisbirds.org

http://www.dnr.illinois.gov/conservation/NaturalHeritage/Pages/Home.aspx

http://www.dnr.illinois.gov/conservation/NaturalHeritage/Pages/Home.aspx


Population Trends In Illinois ofSome Neotropical MigratorySpecies for Three SamplingPeriods: 1966-1994; 1966-1979;and 1980-1994. Numbers repre-sent population decrease (nega-tive number) or increase. Thenumbers in the chart representcompilation of data collected overthe sample periods. Numbersacross each row have been cal-culated statistically and will notcompute as presented (data fromIllinois Department of NaturalResources, 1995).

SPECIES 1966 to 1994 1966 to 1979 1980 to 1994

black-billed cuckoo -2.1 3.4 -4.0

yellow-billed cuckoo -3.4 4.5 -3.8

eastern whip-poor-will -16.1 -9.9 -8.7

chimney swift -1.7 2.1 -4.2

ruby-throated hummingbird -2.0 2.5 3.8

eastern wood-pewee -0.7 -5.3 0.7

Acadian flycatcher -2.9 -8.3 -2.1

great crested flycatcher -1.4 0.4 -1.6

eastern kingbird -2.9 -6.4 -1.7

purple martin -5.1 -0.7 -5.5

northern rough-winged swallow -1.5 11.9 5.7

bank swallow -2.5 5.4 -2.4

cliff swallow 19.0 -6.1 8.9

barn swallow 0.9 4.2 -1.3

house wren 1.6 -0.1 3.0

blue-gray gnatcatcher 5.9 -0.9 8.1

wood thrush -1.5 0.3 -4.9

gray catbird 1.5 3.2 —

white-eyed vireo -0.9 1.8 -2.2

yellow-throated vireo 4.2 -4.4 2.2

warbling vireo 1.2 1.6 0.4

red-eyed vireo -2.7 -0.4 0.4

northern parula 6.7 13.3 11.1

yellow warbler 6.1 6.4 3.8

prothonotary warbler 1.2 -14.0 -1.8

common yellowthroat -0.4 0.4 -0.9

yellow-breasted chat -4.1 -8.2 -4.3

scarlet tanager -1.5 4.4 7.9

rose-breasted grosbeak 3.3 12.0 -0.8

indigo bunting -0.8 0.5 -1.8

dickcissel -4.0 -10.4 -1.7

chipping sparrow 10.4 2.9 10.2

grasshopper sparrow -6.1 -9.5 -2.0

bobolink -10.7 -5.4 -12.6

orchard oriole -8.9 -6.5 -1.3

Baltimore oriole 1.1 7.0 -2.1


PREPARATION: Cut strips of construction paper for bands.Make banding permits.

CLASS TIME: 20 minutes class time on each of two days

VOCABULARY: bird banding, scientific inquiry, data

MATERIALS: construction paper bands (enough for four-fifths of the class); masking tape; banding permits

COMMON CORE STANDARDS: mathematics 6.SP, 5.MD


Buddy BandingOVERVIEWBy conducting a simulation activity that involves bandingfellow classmates, students use scientific inquiry andlearn about how some bird research is done.

CONCEPTSScientific inquiry, including posing problems, solvingproblems and persuasion, can be used for the study,management and conservation of bird populations andforest ecosystems.

OBJECTIVESStudents will be able to: 1) describe the process of birdbanding; 2) recognize bird banding as a research tool;and 3) use the process of scientific inquiry.

KEY POINTSn Researchers use the process of scientific inquiry tolearn about birds.

n Bird banding is one way researchers learn aboutbirds.

n There are many obstacles to finding out exact infor-mation about bird populations through banding.

TEACHER BACKGROUNDScientists can attach radio transmitters to large animals,including large birds, to track the animals and seewhere they go. Because of their size, it is difficult to puta radio on the body of a small bird, like a warbler, espe-cially if the bird is trying to fly long distances. The maintechnique used by scientists to follow the movements ofbirds is banding.

Bird banding is the art and science of capturing, markingand releasing wild birds for research. Biologists have beenmarking birds for study for more than 100 years. The firstrecord of anyone marking a bird for study was that of JohnJames Audubon, who captured an eastern phoebe in the1850s and wrapped a small piece of silver wire around its

leg and noted that the same individual bird returned to thesame place the following year. Today, bird bandinginvolves attaching a tiny aluminum bracelet to a bird's leg,just above the toes. This loose-fitting band that does notharm the bird or restrict its movements. Many of thedetails of birds' lives are known only through the observa-tion and banding efforts of scientists around the world.

In Illinois, about 300 different species of birds are foundeach year. Not all of these are seen at one time or in oneplace. Some are here only during summer because theywinter far south of here. Others only come "south" toIllinois during the cold Canadian winter. Some only passthrough Illinois during migration because they neither nestnor winter here. There are only a few species of birds thatremain in our state throughout the year, both nesting andwintering here. These species generally include somewoodpeckers, several hawks and owls, crows, jays andchickadees. We refer to these birds as permanent resi-dents.

Why do we band birds, and what do we learn frombanding? To discover which kinds of birds live in a par-ticular area or habitat, we could walk the area through-out the year and watch for different species. With theaid of a good field guide and plenty of practice, weshould be able to identify all of the birds that come to anarea. However, some birds are hard to see, especially insummer when the leaves are thick. Some people canidentify the birds by their calls and songs, since eachbird sings differently. Identifying songs and calls is, ofcourse, even more difficult. Since each species looksdifferent from others, we should be able to separateAmerican robins from blue jays or northern cardinals.However, all individuals of any species look the same.Every American crow, great horned owl, Canada gooseand bald eagle looks just like the others of its species.How do we know which is which and how many thereare in the local population? Color marking, with the useof bands, helps provide the answers.


It is important to estimate the number of birds to monitorpopulation increases and declines. If populations declineat a threatening rate, we can activate managementstrategies to help them. Population counts are a meas-ure of the success of the management programs weuse. Banding birds with a numbered, aluminum bandmay help in the monitoring efforts of some bird popula-tions. However, hundreds, if not thousands of birds mustbe banded to get sufficient information on survival andpopulation size.

Some birds that nest in Illinois travel as far south as thetropical rain forest, while others fly only to Mexico or thesouthern United States for the winter. Do these birdswinter in a very specific area? Are they threatened withloss of habitat on their wintering grounds? By markingindividuals and seeing where other biologists catch themagain, we can learn about their travels. But this knowl-edge is dependent upon catching the same bird twice.Many birds that are banded are never recaptured.Researchers here and in Latin America both band birdsand share information.

One typical method used by researchers to catch birdsfor banding is mist-netting. A fine net is stretched acrossan area where birds are likely to fly. Birds are caughtwhen they fly into the net. A researcher then collectsdata on the species of bird, its age and sex and takesmeasurements. The bird is banded, and then released.Each band is coded with a unique identification number.

How long do birds live? If we mark young birds in theyear they hatch and record their annual return, we canobserve a turnover in the population as they die and arereplaced by their young. Our songbirds live an averageof three to five years. Chickadees have been known tolive 10 to 12 years, but this feat is as likely as one of usliving to be 100! In fact, 75 percent of all songbirds bornthis summer won't live to see next spring. That is why itis so important to protect habitat here in Illinois, wherethese birds raise their young, as well as in the tropics.

Many birds that have been banded die without theresearchers knowing where or when they died. If youfind a dead bird with a band on its leg, you should notifythe U.S. Geological Survey Bird Banding Lab. Recordthe entire number on the band, the date you found thebird, the species (if known) and the exact location.Report the information at http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/bbl/bblretrv/ or by calling 1-800-327-2263.

With such a high percentage of natural losses, furtherdecline in bird populations may threaten their continuedexistence. We can help birds best if we understandwhere they live, what they need, and where they travel.Banding is one technique that provides us with the

essential information we need to manage habitat for birdconservation.

PROCEDURE1. Begin a class discussion on bird banding. How dobiologists know where birds fly for the winter? Howdo scientists know which birds go where, when mostindividuals of the same species have a similarappearance? How would banding birds facilitate gath-ering information? Explain that the students will havethe opportunity to see what it's like to be a banderand to be a bandee. However, because it requiresspecial equipment, special permits from the federalgovernment and lots of training, they will not actuallybe banding birds; they will be banding people!

2. Review the method of scientific inquiry. As a class,select a research question, such as: Where do stu-dents go at lunch?; Where are the students from theparticipating class during the last period of the day?;How many students from the participating class usethe front door to leave the school building at the endof the day? More than one question may be pur-sued during the data collection, as is often done inreal research. Tell the students that they will need tocollect data to answer their question.

3. Divide the class into "researchers" and "migratorybirds" with a ratio of approximately one researcherto five birds. Band student "birds" with numberedconstruction paper anklets and instruct them to gothrough the school day in their normal fashion. (Ifyou are doing this activity with several classes atonce, use different colored bands for each class. If alarge percentage of the students in the school areparticipating in the activity at once, it would be morerealistic if the number of banded "birds" werereduced to two out of every five.)

4. Give each researcher a "banding permit" that givespermission to do this activity. Researchers then setup imaginary mist nets. For example, researcherscan stand in a selected hallway to catch migratingstudents, recording the number and color of theband, the time, location and whether or not they hadbeen caught before and any information necessaryto the research question. Emphasize to the student"birds" that they shouldn't change their daily activi-ties on account of the research project, or they willrisk invalidating data. Because birds are not usuallyconfined to hallways when they travel, and they mayfly over or around the mist net without necessarilyknowing it's there, student researchers should agreeto accept a handicap, such as only stopping everyfifth person who passes them.

5. The next day, have students organize the data andpresent their findings to the class. It would be a

http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/bbl/bblretrv/

http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/bbl/bblretrv/


good opportunity to incorporate math skills, such asfractions, probability and graphing. Students couldcalculate what percent of all "birds" migrated outsideduring lunch and what percent were caught by thelibrary, then graph the results. Some questions mayrequire more "field work" to collect data. If any newbanding is required, students need to request a newbanding permit.

6. Discuss the process of scientific inquiry. Relate thisprocess to how students answer their researchquestion.

7. Ask "researchers" to share some of the problemsthey encountered in banding "birds." Compare theseresults to the problems bird banders might face.Discuss the benefits and limitations of obtainingdata on birds from banding.

DISCUSSION1. Did the research answer the original question?What similarities exist between this activity and whatbird banders do? What differences exist? Why iscooperation and sharing of data important in anystudy such as this? How could the study have beenimproved to increase the accuracy of the findings?Who else might be interested in your findings?

2. How have scientists been able to learn so muchabout migratory bird travel and needs? Do theyknow all that needs to be known about bird migra-tion? Why is it that we don't know many exactdetails about where individual birds spend variousparts of their lives? For how many years do scien-tists have to band and catch birds before theyobtain sufficient information on bird ages and sur-vival? Before participating in this activity, what wouldyou have done if you found a dead bird with a bandon its leg? What would you do now?

EXTENSIONS1. To really simulate what happens in bird banding,several different parties should be monitoring thesame banded students at different times. Someideas for incorporating this suggestion include: a)have two groups of students (or two classes) collectdata on the same banded students at different timesof the day or week; or b) on the back of the bands,have students write a request to the parents of thebanded student to please return the band to schoolwith information about where the family lives or whattypes of things the student does at home.

2. Visit a bird bander in the field, or invite one to cometo your school to demonstrate equipment. Bandersare most active during the spring and fall migrations.Contact the IDNR at 217-785-8547 for informationabout bird banders in your area.

3. Sometime during the school day, introduce a cata-strophic event that would affect part of the "bird"population. For example, have a hazardous stormsweep by the lockers, "killing" any "birds" there atthe time. Then recover the bands and discuss whatyou would do with them in real life.

ASSESSMENT1. Students should be able to explain some benefitsand shortcomings to relying on bird banding forlearning about birds.



VOCABULARY: biological diversity (or biodiversity), conser-vation, preservation

MATERIALS: old, junked radios, telephones, clocks, toastersand other such equipment; tools to disassemble them, suchas screwdrivers, pliers, etc.

NEXT GENERATION SCIENCE STANDARDS: MS-ESS3-4


Flower in the crannied wall,I pluck you out of the crannies,I hold you here, root and all, in my hand,Little flower—but if I could understandWhat you are, root and all, and all in all,I should know what God and man is.

— Alfred, Lord Tennyson

OVERVIEWBy removing parts of a machine used to model anecosystem, students learn about biodiversity and thedangers of removing parts before knowing the role theyplay in a system.

CONCEPTSn Forests are complex ecosystems.n Birds are part of forest ecosystems.

OBJECTIVEStudents will be able to understand the need to con-serve biodiversity.

KEY POINTSn People need to conserve biodiversity, even if wedon't know the importance of all the components ofan ecosystem.

n A living creature or an ecosystem is more complexand harder to put back together again than ahumanmade machine.

TEACHER BACKGROUNDBiodiversity (or biological diversity) is defined simply asthe variety of life. It is usually thought of in three ways.First, and most commonly, we refer to species diversity,the variety of species present in a given area. Forinstance, we can speak of species biodiversity in a par-ticular forest, meaning all fungi, protozoa, bacteria, ani-mal and plant species. Sometimes, rather than countingeach species equally in measuring species diversity,

one species may be given more weight. This procedureis done in the case of a rare or endangered species, forthe loss of a few could deplete biodiversity by reducingthe number of species present.

Biodiversity is also used to describe genetic diversity,which is defined as the variability present in a particulargene pool of any given species. Usually, the morediverse the gene pool, the healthier the species, asdiversity allows for adaptation and change over time.

Finally, biodiversity can refer to ecosystem diversity.Ecosystems are systems where there is an exchange ofmaterials between the living and nonliving components.This diversity can be an indication of the variety of popu-lations and communities in a given region. A national for-est may contain coniferous and deciduous forests andlake and stream ecosystems. The deciduous forest itselfcontains a variety of ecosystem types, such as in thecanopy and the forest floor. Greater ecosystem diversityoften contributes to greater species and genetic diversity.

However we define biodiversity, it is dynamic, changing.For example, through geologic time, the climate haschanged enough to greatly alter diversity with theadvance and retreat of glaciers. On local levels, we maysee changes in diversity through human interactionswith the environment, such as clearing woodlands foragriculture or discharging untreated waste water intostreams. Biodiversity also changes continuously throughdispersal mechanisms and adaptation strategies of indi-vidual species. If a particular habitat becomes lessdesirable for a species, the species may be able tothrive by migrating or dispersing to another area. Or, aspecies having higher genetic diversity may be capableof adapting to the changes within its environment.

Generally, the more specialized or isolated a species is,the more vulnerable it is to environmental change. Aspecies that exists only in a small area, such as anisland, can be destroyed completely in a single storm. A

Intelligent Tinkering


species can be driven to extinction by human activity, aswas the passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) dueto excessive, unregulated hunting and dramatic changesin available habitat. Many species suffer from humanactions, such as destruction of suitable habitat like wet-lands or land conversion from forests to suburbs andshopping malls. In some places, the loss of largeamounts of contiguous forest habitat has been associat-ed with declining populations of many species.

Maintaining biodiversity is an important goal forhumankind, given that the variety of life is more threat-ened today than in any time since the extinction of thedinosaurs 65 million years ago. The dodo bird (Raphuscucullatus), passenger pigeon and Labrador duck(Camptorhynchus labradorius) have all become extinct,while the whooping crane (Grus americana), red-cockadedwoodpecker (Picoides borealis) and Kirtland's warbler(Dendroica kitlandii) have been declared endangered.

In the United States, the Kirtland's warbler is on theEndangered Species list. From 1961 to 1971, the popu-lation of Kirtland's warblers decreased to dangerouslylow levels, primarily due to parasitism by the brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater). (See “CowbirdCapers” for more information on cowbird parasitism.)With a massive recovery plan, which included cowbirdcontrol, the warbler's population stabilized. There is nowevidence that suitable breeding habitat is the limitingfactor in this warbler's recovery. This species breeds ina very specific habitat of dense, young jack pine (Pinusbanksiana) stands found in Michigan. Historically, jackpine required naturally-occurring fires to reproduce. Theheat of the fires was necessary to open the cones andrelease the seeds. Due to fire prevention, this habitatbecame limited. In addition to cowbird control, recoveryefforts now include developing and maintaining suitablenesting habitat on a sustained basis, including plannedrotation cuttings of jack pine stands within designatedmanagement areas.

Why care about maintaining biodiversity? Given thepresent rate of habitat degradation and loss, particularlyin the tropics, 15 percent of all species may becomeextinct in the next few years. The implications of suchloss are immense. As humans, we are subject to themoral and aesthetic aspects of such destruction.Unfortunately, these aspects are hard to quantify andcategorize and therefore often get overlooked and omit-ted from the conservation equation. Other implicationsare more concrete, such as alteration of ecosystems tothe extent that the change affects climate and importantecosystem functions such as cycling nutrients, purifyingwater and removing wastes. Jeopardizing ecosystemfunctions could hamper sustainable production of somecrops on which humans depend. We are just beginning

to realize what unknown adverse impacts may occur asa result of the loss of biodiversity.

Loss of species diversity can mean the destruction ofpotential but not yet identified resources, such as medi-cine and food. For example, recent research has foundthat the bark of the Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), a treethat grows in the Pacific Northwest, contains the mak-ings of a drug, taxol. Taxol is used in treating certaintypes of cancer in humans. Before anyone discoveredthis potential use of the Pacific yew, the tree was notconsidered economically important and was oftenburned as waste during logging operations.

Humans can take positive steps to conserve biodiversi-ty. The bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), ournational symbol, was endangered because of pesticidesin the food chain. By limiting use of certain pesticides,such as DDT, we reduced the pesticides’ residues in thefood chain and improved the quality of the eagle's foodsource. In large part due to these efforts, the baldeagle's status has been redefined from endangered tothreatened in Illinois and federally, and it has now beenremoved from the endangered and threatened list.

To protect species and genetic diversity, we have tomaintain habitats and ecosystems. One way to do so isthrough the creation and management of parks andreserves. Preservation is one strategy; the maintainingof a natural environment undisturbed by the influence oractivities of humans. However, this approach alone issimplistic and will not be effective in the long run.Natural succession will change the ecosystem, even ifhumans do not interfere. Nor will we be able to set asideenough land to preserve biodiversity, in part becausecompetition often comes from increasing human popula-tions, and our need for resources often prevents suchpreservation.

Many countries in the tropics are experiencing a humanpopulation explosion. Nicaragua, for example, had apopulation of 1.1 million in 1950, 3.87 million in 1990and is projected to be at 9.22 million by the year 2025.This increasing human population in Nicaragua andother developing countries will necessitate the use ofmore land and food resources, potentially at theexpense of biodiversity. In the United States, despitemuch slower human population growth, specializedhabitats such as wetlands are often compromised fordevelopment, and we've lost most of our prairies andsavannas already. It is estimated that people in theUnited States use up to 30 times more resources perperson than most of the third world does.

While there is a need to preserve some areas, here andin the tropics, we also will have to work within managed


lands to conserve as much biodiversity as possible,while still producing commodities for humans.Conservation is the protection, improvement and wiseuse of natural resources to assure the attainment of thehighest economic and social values for perpetuity.Ultimately, conservation will allow for wise use ofresources and maintenance of biodiversity.

In order to conserve biodiversity, we have to understandthat all species and ecosystems have value. Because itis not feasible to measure all biodiversity, nor to under-stand all present and future values of each livingspecies, we have to act intelligently when we alter natu-ral environments. As Aldo Leopold succinctly suggests inhis essay “Round River,” we should not undervalue ordiscard a resource just because we're not sure of its use.

"Have we learned the first principle of conservation: to pre-serve all the parts of the land mechanism?...To save everycog and wheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering."

PROCEDURE1. Divide the class into cooperative groups of four.Assign each student a role as follows: a) a Labelerto label parts; b) a Recorder to write down eachpart's function; c) a Disassembler to take the piecesapart; and d) an Assembler, to put the item backtogether.

2. Give each group an old, junked radio, clock or otherpiece of machinery. Instruct them to separate it intoas many individual pieces as possible in ten to fif-teen minutes. Have the Labeler and Recorder labeleach piece with its name and its function in that par-ticular piece of equipment. If students are not sureexactly what a piece is called or what it is used for,have them write a "?" for that piece. There shouldbe lots of question marks.

3. Have students throw away all the pieces labeledwith a "?."

4. Instruct the Reassembler to put together the originalpiece of equipment, using only the pieces that areleft. Students will immediately realize that this isimpossible. Ask if their machinery is fixed.

5. Read them Leopold's line: "To save every cog andwheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering."Discuss the meaning of "intelligent tinkering."Compare the machine or appliance to an ecosys-tem. Point out that a forest ecosystem, once alteredor destroyed is harder to reconstruct than a human-made machine.

6. Define biodiversity. Discuss the importance of biodi-versity and its conservation. Discuss the importanceof considering biodiversity in land-use decisions,along with the many other valid concerns: the needfor agricultural expansion; housing development; con-servation of other wildlife habitat; fuel wood; etc.Define and discuss the difference between conserva-tion and preservation. Discuss ways we, in temperateclimates, can help conserve biodiversity in tropical cli-mates. Students may suggest international conserva-tion treaties, trade agreements or education efforts.

7. Ask members how the group performed. What didyour group do well? What does your group need towork on?

DISCUSSION1. Was anyone able to repair their piece of machinery?If machines, which are created by people, are com-plicated to understand, how complex are livingthings? If a flower were plucked or a bird killed,could you fix the flower so it would function againmaking nectar, or the bird so it could sing or fly?What about a whole ecosystem? If a forest isdestroyed, can you recreate it overnight?

2. Why is it important to save all the pieces, even thosewe can neither name nor identify by purpose? Whatpieces have we already lost? Which ones are we indanger of losing? How is your toaster/radio/clock likean ecosystem? How is it different? How are the partslike individual species? How are they different? Doesthe ecosystem stop working when one or some partsare removed? Can it function in a different manner?

3. Is it important to conserve biodiversity? Why? Is theloss of any single bird a big deal? Why, or why not?Is conserving biodiversity important only forhumans? Do you think people in Latin America thinkthe same way about the need to conserve biodiver-sity as you do?

4. What human interests and needs may conflict withconserving biodiversity? Is it appropriate to setaside large tracts of forest solely for the benefit ofwildlife? Can we use forests in such a way that bio-diversity can be conserved? What might happen ifwe tried to preserve all forests without any distur-bance from human activity?

MODIFICATIONSHave each class work on one large machine during oneday, so each class takes the machine apart a little furtherduring their class period. The next day, have classes tryto put the machine back together. This process will bevery difficult because students don't know what parts


other classes removed. Compare this activity to the wayan ecosystem may be changed by many generations ofpeople, each knowing little about the alterations made byprevious generations.

If you don't have access to machines or tools, try thisactivity. Ask each group to pick four letters that are notnext to each other in the alphabet, including at least onevowel. Give cooperative groups a word search puzzle,withholding for a moment the key words and the factthat the block of letters is a word search. Write the fourselected letters on top of their page. Next, instruct themto cross out these four letters each time they appear onthe page. Supply the students with the key words andtell them the writing on the page is a word search. Askthem to find as many of the key words as they can inthe search, but they can no longer use the lettersthey've crossed off. After they've worked on it, ask howmany of the words they were able to find. Ask if theywould have chosen different letters to cross out if theyhad understood the letters' roles in the word search.Continue with procedures five and six from above andconduct the discussion.

EXTENSION1. Read and discuss Tennyson's poem as it relates tothe complexity of living things and our ability tocomprehend biodiversity.

2. In cooperative learning groups, have students con-duct research on threatened or endangered speciesto find out about limiting factors and conservationefforts.

3. Take students outside and mark off a small areawith a hula hoop or circle of string for each coopera-tive group. Each group must determine, as well asthey can, how many different species of plants andwildlife are living in their circle. Relate this activity toa discussion of biodiversity.

ASSESSMENT1. Evaluate student performance in cooperativegroups.

2. Have students write down why you had them takeapart machines.

3. Ask students to define "biodiversity," "conservation"and "preservation.”


PREPARATION: Make craft dough (or paper territories forModification).CLASS TIME: one class periodVOCABULARY: territory, forest interior species, fragmentationMATERIALS: craft dough–enough for one lump of dough perstudent (or paper and compasses for Modification); roundcookie cutters or similar items, such as jar lids–one for eachstudent; rolling pins or other similar items; waxed paper; atable knifeNEXT GENERATION SCIENCE STANDARDS: MS-ESS3-4,MS-LS2-4, MS-LS2-5


Territory TangoOVERVIEWStudents make craft dough models of bird territories tolearn about habitat requirements of interior forestspecies compared to edge species.


n Bird populations are affected by human impact ontheir habitat.

n Each forest management option may limit other for-est uses.

n Human use and management of forests affects birdpopulations.

OBJECTIVESStudents will be able to: 1) demonstrate how forest frag-mentation reduces habitat for some migratory birds; and2) explain that some birds require interior forest habitat,while others thrive on the edge.

KEY POINTSn Bird species have different habitat requirements.n Some bird species require interior forest habitat tosucceed.

n Some bird species require forest edge habitat,grassland, wetland or other habitat types.

n Dividing a forest into smaller sections alters thehabitat, even if the total area forested remains thesame.

TEACHER BACKGROUNDWhen the European explorers and settlers came toIllinois, portions of the state were covered with extensive,mature forests that were broken by the open sweeps ofmarshes, savanna and prairie. In some places where theforest met the open prairie, there were savannas, withscattered trees and a grassland understory. The part of

the state not covered by prairie was covered by forestsof oak and hickory, maple and basswood, as well asmixed broadleaved trees and conifers, and other foresttypes. In these great forest tracts lived many kinds ofmammals and birds.

Some wildlife species need large forest stands to findfood and shelter to successfully rear their young. Amongthem are many species of birds, called interior forestspecies, because they live in the interior of large forest-ed areas. The ovenbird and scarlet tanager are exam-ples of interior forest birds.

As Illinois was being settled, trees were cut for lumberand to clear the land for farming, much as people aredoing for new settlements in the tropics today. Woodwas used to build homes, factories and other artifacts ofmodern living. Wetlands were drained, and prairies wereplowed. Since reaching a low point in the 1920s, the for-est cover has slowly grown back. However, we havedivided the land into smaller areas and compartmentsfor the variety of uses we demand for our lives, thus wehave fewer extensive forests and more smaller wood-lots. We call this division of forest land into smaller sec-tions "fragmentation."

Some forest interior bird populations are limited by thisland conversion. Other species, such as the indigobunting, prefer a more open setting and can thrive onthe edge of forests. The indigo bunting is a Neotropicalmigratory bird that breeds in Illinois.

Several small woodlots hold fewer interior wildlife speciesthan one large forest, since conditions in small woodlotsare different than in a large forest. In a large forest, thedistance to the nearest edge or opening may be milesaway, while in a 40-acre woodlot it can be no more thanabout 200 yards. Winds from the surrounding land keep amoist micro-climate from developing and discourage cer-tain plants from living there. Also, brown-headed cowbirds(Molothrus ater) venture into these small areas to lay their


eggs in the nests of other birds. Forest interior birdspecies, not having lived with cowbirds before, producefewer young, and may actually now only raise cowbirds.In other words, the area has been upset to a point whereit no longer functions as an interior forest ecosystem forcertain plant and animal species.

The smaller woodlots can be beneficial to those speciesthat thrive on the forest edge, such as the indigobunting. The abundance of indigo buntings hasincreased since the turn of the century with the creationof favorable habitat following logging operations andabandonment of pastures. While indigo buntings are fre-quent cowbird hosts, they have a strategy to defendagainst this parasitism (the laying of eggs by anotherspecies in the host's nest). Indigo buntings occasionallybury cowbird eggs by building a new floor in the nest.

As we fragment the forest community into smaller seg-ments, it becomes harder for those species that dependmost on forest interior habitat to survive and reproducesuccessfully. A forest rich in biological diversity may behome to dozens of bird species. When we fragment theforest, we reduce the size of their habitat. We also openthe area to invasion from competitors like brown-headedcowbirds, the introduced European starling (Sturnusvulgaris), or predators such as raccoons (Procyon lotor),striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) and cats (Feliscatus). With the destruction of habitat, some forest birdsno longer use the area because of the lack of space,while others cannot successfully raise their young. Overtime, these populations decline.

As we turn our attention to the loss of tropical habitat,we need to keep in mind that many birds come to Illinoisto raise their young. The way we manage our forests isjust as important to migratory bird survival as land man-agement in the tropics.

PROCEDURE1. Tell the class they will carve bird territories out ofdough. Have the students assist with the mixing ofthe craft dough or bring it pre-mixed from your home(simple recipes follow). You may also purchase thecraft dough if you do not want to make it.

2. Divide the class into cooperative groups: in eachgroup, half the students are "ovenbirds" (an interiorforest species) and half are "indigo buntings" (edgespecialists).

3. Give each class member a lump of dough thatwould be just big enough for one cut-out. Pass outlids to use as cookie cutters, waxed paper to workon and rolling pins (or similar cylindrical items).

4. Explain that the dough represents the forest habitat,and the cut-outs represent breeding territories. Explain

that only whole cut-outs (territories) areallowed and thatthey cannot putscraps together torole out more cut-outs because birdscan't create morehabitat this way. Tellstudents that a thin,stretched cut-out willrepresent poor quali-ty habitat.

5. Explain to the"ovenbirds" thatthey prefer interiorforest territories andthat their cut-outsmust be made witha border of one inch of dough all around. Thisarrangement is not because ovenbirds have biggerterritories, but to simulate interior forest territory witha buffer zone. The indigo buntings can make theircut-outs right up to the edge. (See illustrations.)

6. After they've tried this procedure, discuss how itworked. The ovenbirds were probably not able to cre-ate a territory with their lump of dough. If they were, itwas probably too thin to be good quality habitat.

7. Redefine the group's goal: to make as many com-plete territories as possible, with just one round ofcutting (i.e., without putting all the scraps together,rolling them out and cutting out more). All the birdterritories must be whole (no partial cut-outs), andovenbirds must have at least a one-inch border fromthe edge of the dough. Ovenbird territories may benext to indigo bunting territories, but not next to theedge. Explain that ovenbird territories normally don'toverlap. Ideally, the group members will combinedough into one big sheet to get more territories,placing ovenbirds in the interior and indigo buntingsaround the edge. If the students do not adopt this

Cooperative EffortsOvenbird territories mustbe in the forest interior.

Indigo bunting territoriesmay be in the buffer zonearound the forest edge.


strategy after a while, suggest it to them. Theyshould be able to get more territories than byworking individually.

8. See how many interior and edge territories eachgroup is able to cut from the dough and record classtotals. Is there any way that more territories couldbe cut without making them thinner? Re-lump thedough. Merge several groups, then the whole class,and see how many territories can be carved out ofthe larger roll of dough. This number of interior terri-tories should be higher than their previous totals.

9. Once all the territories have been counted, cut athin, straight line through the center of the dough.Tell the students the people living on one side of theforest need to get to town on the other side, so theymade a road, as represented by the knife line. Nowsee how many whole territories are left. Ovenbirdterritories must be one inch from this line, since theroad has created a new edge.

10. Discuss how the dough represents the forest and thecut-outs represent the minimum space requirementsfor one pair of breeding ovenbirds or indigo buntings.Relate the dough activity to key points. Different birdsrequire different habitats and dividing the forest, evenby a slender road, fragments the forest and alters it ashabitat for some species. Relate what students havelearned to forest management. How would they man-age a forest differently for edge or interior species?

DISCUSSION1. Ask students why the ovenbirds had to have territo-ries at least one inch from the forest edge. Whywere the students able to get so many thick cut-outsfrom the larger sheet of dough when it was so diffi-cult with the small individual portions? If you weremanaging a forest for indigo bunting habitat, whatwould you do? How about for ovenbird habitat? Whyis it important for ovenbirds to have access to largeblocks of forest, rather than just many small wood-lots? Did cutting the sheet of dough with the knifereduce the number of whole territories that wereable to be cut from the dough? What would be aparallel disturbance in a real forest? Point out thatwhen we use forest land for one purpose, it maylimit other uses.

MODIFICATIONSubstitute four-inch squares of green construction paperfor the craft dough and have students draw circular terri-tories 3.5 inches in diameter with a compass. When stu-dents would re-lump the dough, have them turn overtheir paper squares so when they combine them withseveral groups together, the new compass-drawn circleswill not be confused with the earlier ones. Create largertracts of forest by putting paper squares together (like

pieces of a puzzle) instead of combining dough. In thefinal combination of green squares for the whole class,you can change marker color to help avoid confusion.Draw the road with a different colored marker as well.

EXTENSIONUse the remaining dough to make a model of your sistercountry or a model of the Westerly forest in the "TownMeeting" activity.

ASSESSMENT1. Have students write about how forest fragmentationaffects interior forest birds and edge species.

2. Assess participation in cooperative groups.

BAKER’S DOUGHThis recipe is simple to make but should be mixedjust before class to avoid over-stickiness.Materials:2 cups flour ½ to 1 cup water1 cup salt food coloring (green)

1. Combine flour and salt together in mixing bowl.2. Gradually add water.3. Mix dough with your hands until it is pliable andnot sticky.

4. For color, add food coloring to the water.This recipe makes enough dough for approximately18 students.

CRAFT DOUGHThis recipe is more complex, but the dough is easi-er to work with.Materials:2 cups baking soda 1 1/4 cups cold water1 cup corn starch food coloring (green)

1. Combine all ingredients, except food coloring, insauce pan.

2. Cook over medium heat, stirring constantly, for 10minutes until mixture is consistency of mashedpotatoes.

3. Remove from heat, turn out onto a plate, andcover with a damp cloth.

4. When cool knead into a smooth ball, adding foodcoloring.

5. Store in tightly sealed plastic bag and refrigerate.This recipe makes enough dough for approximately20 students.


PREPARATION: Make songbird and cowbird "beaks."

CLASS TIME: 20 to 30 minutes

VOCABULARY: cowbird, brood parasitism, fragmentation,edge effect

MATERIALS: 1 blindfold; 4 small (4- to 6-ounce) paper orplastic cups; 1 large unbreakable mixing bowl or plastic con-tainer (e.g., the bottom half of a plastic milk jug); 5, three-foot pieces of string; popped popcorn

NEXT GENERATION SCIENCE STANDARDS: MS-ESS3-4,MS-LS2-4

TEACHER’SGUIDE

ACTIVITY

OVERVIEWStudents participate in a simulation of brown-headedcowbird (Molothrus ater) parasitism.

CONCEPTSn Bird populations are affected by human impact ontheir habitat.

n Human use and management of forests affect birdpopulations.

OBJECTIVESStudents will be able to: 1) recognize that forest frag-mentation increases "edge effects" including brood par-asitism; 2) recognize that brood parasitism affects thereproductive success of forest songbirds; and 3)describe how nests of breeding songbirds are para-sitized by brown-headed cowbirds.

KEY POINTSn Forest fragmentation increases edge effects.n Those edge effects impact negatively on interior for-est bird populations.

TEACHER BACKGROUNDIn "Territory Tango,” forest fragmentation was discussedas one reason for the decline of songbird populations.Breaking a forest into fragments reduces the total num-ber of suitable territories, and hence nesting sites, forthose birds that depend on interior forest.

Fragmentation contributes to the decline of migratorybird populations in another way too, by giving parasiticbirds access to their hosts, a phenomenon referred toas brood parasitism.

Brood parasites are birds that lay their eggs in the nestsof other birds (host species). The parasite's eggs hatchand are raised by the host species. Some parasitesnever rear their own young and are, therefore, totallydependent on host species. The brown-headed cowbird

is the most common nest parasite in North America.Because the host parent birds are attending to the para-site young, often few or none of the host's own youngsurvive. Young cowbirds tend to hatch and developmore quickly than most songbirds’ young. Often they arebigger too, and they may push others out of the nest.Many of the host species that co-evolved with the broodparasites have reduced the success of parasitesthrough a variety of strategies, such as building a newnest or pushing the parasite eggs out of the nest.However, if a host species has not co-evolved with aparasitic species, the host may lack the strategies nec-essary to cope with parasitism. This situation is true inNorth America, where the brown-headed cowbird cannow reach populations of forest songbirds.

The brown-headed cowbird, prior to European settlement,was found in the western part of our country. Its habitatwas open grassland. It followed American bison (Bisonbison) herds, eating insects from their dung and from theprairie disturbed by their great hooves. Because it fol-lowed the herd to find food, it could not warm and hatchits own eggs and raise its young, so cowbirds adapted byusing the nests and parenting abilities of other birds. Withsettlement and the subsequent deforestation of largeareas of eastern North America, the range of the cowbirdhas expanded. Along with deforestation has come signifi-cant forest fragmentation. The fragments contain morearea that is adjacent to the forest edge, and cowbirdshave increased access to forest bird nests.

Forest fragmentation and increased edge effect werenot the only influences on cowbird parasitism. The cow-bird population has also increased sharply, due in partto an increase in rice cultivation in the south. Rice pro-vides a winter food source, which was previously lack-ing. Now, increased cowbird populations, in combinationwith increased forest fragmentation and edge effects,have led to increased brood parasitism.

Many forest-breeding Neotropical migratory birds havenot developed defenses to parasitism. The susceptible

Cowbird Capers


host birds include warblers, vireos, flycatchers, tanagersand thrushes. If cowbird populations continue to rise,the populations of our forest-dwelling Neotropical migra-tory birds are likely to continue to decline.

PROCEDURE1. Thread each of the small paper or plastic cups ontoa three-foot piece of string by punching two smallholes on opposite sides of the container within one-half inch of the bottom.

2. Ahead of time, secretly select a student with a loudvoice to play the role of the baby cowbird. Tell thecowbird to join the others in the circle when you givethe signal. Explain the activity to the selected stu-dent, but keep the cowbird's role secret from therest of the class.

3. Introduce the activity with a question about whysongbird populations are declining or what effect cut-ting large tracts of forest into small fragments sur-rounded by nonforested areas has on forest birds.Say, "Let's simulate a songbird nest to find out."

4. Select four students to be baby songbirds. Havethem sit facing outward in a tight circle on theground or on chairs. Tie the plastic cups onto theheads of the four baby songbirds like hats but withthe open end pointed up. Explain that the cups rep-resent the open mouth of the hungry baby birds.When the parent bird returns to the nest, the babybirds call loudly ("Tweet tweet tweet...") to signal theparent bird that they are hungry. The parent birdresponds by distributing food to the hungry babies.Typically, the loudest bird attracts the most attentionand thus gets the most food.

5. Select one student to be the parent bird. Give thatstudent a blindfold and a bowl of popped popcorn.The parent bird distributes food (popcorn) to the hun-gry baby birds by standing at the edge of their circleand dropping or tossing pieces of popcorn in thedirection of the tweeting birds. Blindfold the parentbird to ensure that s/he is distributing the food only inresponse to whomever is tweeting the loudest. Eachbaby bird must catch at least ten pieces of popcornin the cup in order to survive. Caution studentsagainst trying to actively position themselves to catchthe popcorn as this could result in banging headswith another student. Rather, they should simplytweet louder to get the attention of the parent bird.

6. After the directions are given and the parent bird isblindfolded, the baby cowbird is signaled to quietlyenter the circle and sit in the center of the other babybirds. Don't let the parent bird know that this is hap-pening. The baby cowbird competes for food and isaided by the larger container, such as a mixing bowl,which s/he holds on his/her head to represent the

bird's open mouth. The baby cowbird should join theother baby birds in tweeting loudly for food. The cow-bird's larger "mouth," louder voice and central loca-tion in the nest should give it a clear advantage overthe baby songbirds and allow it to catch a significantportion of the distributed popcorn. To simulate thereal-life situation of limited resources, limit theamount of popcorn given to the parent bird to throw.

7. Continue the activity until the parent songbird hasused the popcorn, then have the baby birds counttheir pieces of popcorn.

8. Discuss how many songbirds survived. Why did sofew survive? How much popcorn did the cowbirdcatch?

9. Define cowbird parasitism. Explain that cowbirdsparasitize songbird nests and that brood parasitismfrom cowbirds is one factor in the population declineof songbirds. Point out that humans have altered theforest, creating more of an edge. This change inlandscape has put forest birds in close proximity tothe cowbird.

10. Ask whether the people of Puerto Rico should beconcerned about what cowbirds are doing in theMidwest? Why or why not?

DISCUSSION1. If all the popcorn kernels caught by the cowbirdwere distributed to the other baby birds in the nest,how many of them would have survived? Whatimpact do cowbirds have on the nesting success ofsongbirds? What will eventually happen to song-birds if brood parasitism continues year after year?

plastic cup, open side up

punched holenear bottom ofcup

string throughholes near baseof cup

string to tiecup on head


2. Is there anything that humans can do to protectsongbirds from cowbird parasitism? (Short-termresponses could include trapping cowbirds, remov-ing cowbird eggs from songbird nests or in someother way discouraging them from parasitizing song-bird nests. Long-term solutions include restrictingthe geographic range of cowbirds by reducing theamount of forest edge and restoring the presence oflarge unbroken tracts of forest.) Is this somethingthat people should do? Is the current situation "nat-ural?” Does it preserve the balance of nature? Whydo cowbirds parasitize other nests? How havechanges in the rural landscape affected cowbirdpopulations? Why is it that cowbirds are more of athreat to songbirds now than they were in the past?What changes have occurred in the landscape ofthe Midwest? This change in landscape has put for-est birds in close proximity to the cowbird. Who isresponsible for the current cowbird situation? Whois responsible for protecting the songbirds?

3. Tell students about the endangered Kirtland's war-bler and the recovery effort to reduce cowbird para-sitism on the warbler's nest (as explained in"Intelligent Tinkering").

MODIFICATIONSNot all species of songbirds are successfully parasitizedby cowbirds. Those that have co-evolved with cowbirdsfor long periods of time (hundreds or thousands ofyears) are able to distinguish cowbird eggs from theirown eggs and may either throw out the cowbird eggs,build a new nest floor over the cowbird eggs or simplyabandon the nest completely and start over elsewhere.To represent such adaptations, the activity could berepeated with the modification that if the blindfolded par-

ent is able to distinguish the "tweet" of the cowbird fromthe "tweets" of the songbirds, then the cowbird can beevicted from the nest and the baby songbirds will have abetter chance of surviving.

This activity can also be done with the entire class par-ticipating in small groups, rather than with only onegroup of five or six students actively participating whilethe other students observe the outcome.

EXTENSIONS1. Students could prepare a report on cowbirds andfind out how to recognize their eggs. How do stateagencies and other wildlife managers recommenddealing with the cowbird situation?

2. Some students may want to conduct their own studyof cowbird parasitism. They could look for nests ofsongbirds to see whether or not they are being par-asitized by cowbirds. Cowbird eggs are most com-mon in songbird nests during May and June. Duringthese months, students with supervision couldcheck to see if there are any cowbird eggs in them.(Cowbird eggs are usually white profusely speckledwith brown. They should look different than the eggsof the host bird.) Caution students against disrupt-ing the parent birds tending the nest.

3. Have students speculate why brood parasitismevolved. Think about the feeding behavior of cow-birds. They evolved to forage along with nomadicbison and had no time to build nests and raiseyoung hence, host species.

ASSESSMENT1. Have students describe cowbird parasitism andexplain how it affects songbirds.


CLASS TIME: two to three class periodsVOCABULARY: consensusMATERIALS: research article summaries in Appendix D; role-playing cards; The ScenarioCOMMON CORE STANDARDS: English language arts MS Writing 1, MS Writing 2, MS Writing 4, MS Writing 8,MS Reading7, MS Reading 8, MS Speaking and Listening 1,MS Speaking and Listening 2, MS Speaking and ListeningNEXT GENERATION SCIENCE STANDARDS: MS-ESS3-3,MS-LS2-5


Town MeetingOVERVIEWIn a simulated town meeting, students use informationthey have learned during the unit to make decisionsregarding a forest.


n People alter and manage forests to accommodatetheir wants and needs.

n Each forest management option may limit other for-est uses.

n People can act to help conserve Neotropical migra-tory forest birds and their homes.

OBJECTIVESStudents will be able to: 1) understand the complexity ofmaking land-use decisions; and 2) demonstrate whatthey have learned through the unit and apply theirknowledge to bird conservation.

KEY POINTSn People can consider birds when they make land-usedecisions.

n Using a forest in one way may limit other uses.n Environmental decisions require compromise.

TEACHER BACKGROUNDThis activity requires the students to use what they havelearned throughout this unit by participating in a simulatedtown meeting. Environmental decision-making is complexand requires compromise. Read the land-use scenarioaccompanying this activity. Some possible ways studentsmay resolve this land-use conflict are as follows.

The Development Company may have the trees cut inan 80-acre plot, then build a retirement center and golfcourse, leaving a few mature trees scattered and agree-ing to enforce a rule that all cats be kept inside. They

might also agree to limit use of pesticides on the golfcourse. They could contract with the Timber Companyto cut the wood and agree to plant some new oaksalong the edge of the golf course. On the other side ofthe golf course, Parks and Recreation might develop anature center with trails for hiking and cross-country ski-ing, agreeing to keep the trails close to the forest edgeand to post "Keep on the Trails" signs along the bordersof the 200-acre interior section of the forest. They couldinvite Audubon Society members to use their facility asa meeting place and to make presentations related tomigratory forest birds. In return, Audubon Society mem-bers might volunteer to identify and remove brown-headed cowbird eggs from songbird nests along theedge of the forest.

Or, the Timber Company could purchase the land, agree-ing to cut small parcels along the edge at 10-year inter-vals and replanting to maintain the land as forest. Theymight plant hardwoods rather than pine, since the soilmight be more suited to hardwoods and, in this location,the hardwoods would provide better wildlife habitat. TheTimber Company could agree to the Parks Department'srequest to use the forest for education. The ParksDepartment could then teach students about forest man-agement techniques through the Timber Company's activ-ities. The Development Company might have to buildelsewhere, and the retirement community might be lessconvenient for the elderly residents and their families.

Or, the Parks Department might claim the woods, usingit primarily for hiking trails, limited campsites and anature center. The Department could agree to theAudubon Society's request to set aside a large portionof the forest to be undisturbed. The Timber Companycould reach an agreement with another community andwork with that county. The Development Company couldbuild elsewhere, too. If this kind of scenario is adopted,students should be sure to discuss possible ramifica-tions of simply moving operations elsewhere without anenvironmental assessment at that site. They should beaware of the possible economic loss to their community.


Students may be able to reach complete, or at least par-tial, consensus by giving each interest group somethingthey want. Perhaps the majority of participants at themeeting feel that having edge species is wonderful andsacrificing other uses of the forest for the sake of interiorforest birds is out of the question, while AudubonSociety members refuse to give in. If no consensus canbe reached, it is important to discuss how the communi-ty should proceed from the stalemate. Students mightdecide more research is needed or they simply needmore time to air their opinions and try to convince eachother of their way of thinking. They may need to re-examine their method of decision-making. The studentsdon't need to actually do this, but they can think aboutwhat a real town could do to traverse the difficultiesinherent in making land-use decisions that affect thelives of many people with different interests at stake.

In order for this activity to work, students must be givenample time to organize their groups, discuss the per-spective they are given and plan their stance for the roleplaying. It is best to have this activity take place overtwo or more days.

It is important that students take bird conservation intoconsideration while making their decisions. For this rea-son, part of each group's argument should include anenvironmental assessment regarding the impact of theirproposal on Neotropical migratory birds. It is the teacher'srole to keep the discussion focused on bird conservation.

Students should attempt to reach consensus about theuse of this piece of land. Historically, any land area notprivately owned was considered a commons or free-for-all area. Any benefits to be received from the area (eco-nomic or otherwise) were for any individual to enjoy;sharing was not necessary. Likewise, each individualhad to bear the entire expense of any conservationeffort s/he might undertake. Any effort to preserve thenatural environment might be in direct opposition to theobjectives of other individuals. In Latin America, thetown meeting process is rare and land-use decisionsare often subject to this "tragedy of the commons." Forexample, people may simply move into a forested areaand chop down trees to meet their own survival needs.Or, the most powerful interests involved at the site mayuse the land as they see fit.

Consensus decision-making requires that each student,or a representative of each cooperative group, has achance to voice an opinion, and there is opportunity fordiscussion. When a motion or solution is proposed,each individual has a chance to state his or her agree-ment or disagreement. Discussion continues withamended proposals until all participants can accept thesame conclusion. This process is different from majority

rule where a vote settles differences of opinion andaction is taken according to what most participantsthink. Consensus decision-making works through coop-eration and compromise so that everybody wins. It ispossible your class will not come to agreement in thetime period given, but consensus is a desirable goal forthe activity.

PROCEDURES1. Read the scenario regarding the land-use issue fac-ing the town. Students will represent different inter-ests in a simulated town meeting. Indicate clearlythe amount of time students will have in groups todevelop their arguments and strategies, the amountof time each group will have to present its point ofview at the town meeting and how much time will beleft for general discussion.

2. Assign one role to each of five cooperative groups:the Natural Products Timber Company; the WesterlyParks and Recreation Department; the PrivateLandowner; a local Audubon Society chapter withinterests in bird conservation; and Tall Oaks HomeDevelopers. Give each group the map of the forestand their appropriate role- play card. Explain thatrepresentatives from each interest group will cometogether at a town meeting where they must attemptto reach consensus on how this land is to be used.Each proposal for land use must include an environ-mental assessment showing impacts of their pro-posal on the birds.

3. To understand and represent their group's perspec-tive, students should draw on what they havelearned in this unit, the information given on therole-play cards and the accompanying researcharticle summaries.

4. In each group, assign the following cooperativeroles: a Facilitator to organize ideas; a Notetaker todocument positions; a Cartographer to draw the pro-posal on the map; a Checker to be sure each groupmember understands the position and strategy ofthe group; and a Processor to review how the groupworked together. Tell the students that during theactual town meeting, each student must be able toprovide their group's arguments and position.

5. Have each group list the benefits of anything theypropose, draw their proposal on the map and writedown the impact their proposal would have onwildlife, especially birds. Note that some birds needinterior forests, while others require edge or openspace. Each group should submit a copy of theirproposal to the teacher prior to the meeting.

6. Arrange desks and tables in a U-shape or squarefor the meeting. With the teacher as moderator, callthe town meeting to order and give each group limit-


ed time to outline their proposal on how the forestshould be used and the benefits of the proposeduse. Remind students that they must listen closelyto other groups, because they must be able to findcommon elements with their own positions to reachconsensus. Be sure each group receives equal timeto speak and to clarify compromises as they arise. Itmay be useful to write agreements on the board asthey are made. Continue until an agreement isreached by all interests or the time is gone.

7. In a large group, discuss how similar or different thiswould be to real-life decision-making. Make the pointthat using a forest one way may limit the option ofanother potential use. Ask students how the decisionthey made today would affect Neotropical migratorybirds. How might their decision have global effects?

8. Ask the Processors of each group to report on howtheir group worked together. Have their skills inworking in cooperative groups improved since thebeginning of the unit?

DISCUSSION1. What would have helped the town reach an agree-ment faster or easier? Did each group adequatelyrepresent their interests during the role play?What did the students learn about cooperation andcompromise? Can education make a difference?

2. What did the people in the town gain from the com-promise? What did they lose? What did people inother places in the region, or in Latin America, gain orlose by the compromise? How will the decision affectNeotropical migratory birds that have used the forestfor nesting? Will there be the same amount of nestinghabitat? How will this change in forest habitat affectbirds as a whole? What if people in other places aremaking decisions similar to these? What effect willthese decisions collectively have on Neotropical

migratory forest birds? In the event of a stalemate,what should the people in the town meeting do tomake a decision?

3. Based on what students have learned during theunit, what problems do you think international plan-ners encounter when they try to reach agreementabout land use? How can we work with people inLatin America to conserve Neotropical migratory for-est bird habitat?

MODIFICATIONSHave the students present their group's interest to therest of the town members (perhaps some other class inyour school) and then hold a vote to determine the fateof the forest. Or have the teacher act as mayor of thetown. It would be up to the mayor to listen to all thearguments and make a final decision.

Ask students to step out of the role they have beengiven. How would they have compromised on this land-use issue, personally?

EXTENSION1. Students can make a model of the proposed forestplans.

ASSESSMENT1. Collect and evaluate a copy of each group's propos-al prior to the town meeting.

2. Evaluate ability to explain his/her group's proposal.3. Assess student participation in the town meetingaccording to a rubric or checklist. Be sure to informstudents of the criteria you are using to evaluatethem.

4. Assess participation in cooperative groups duringthe planning and preparation.


The ScenarioThe Town of Westerly, Illinois, includes a large area (400acres*, or 162 hectares) of undeveloped deciduous forest(see map at close of this lesson plan). The forest landwas owned by the Johnson family until this year, when itwas donated to the town. There has been no significantmanagement of this forest land for the last 100 years.Therefore, what exists is a mixed hardwood forest, con-sisting primarily of mature oaks and hickories, some blackcherry (Prunus serotina) trees and much undergrowth,mainly brambles. The only restriction placed by theJohnson family on Westerly's use of the land was that itremain a favorable habitat for wildlife. The Johnsons didnot indicate what type of wildlife. The Town of Westerlynow needs to make some decisions as to how to use thisforest. Already two businesses have expressed interest inutilizing the forest in ways they feel will help the commu-nity. The Natural Products Timber Company has submit-ted a proposal to the Town Council indicating interest inharvesting some trees in the forest. Simultaneously, theTall Oaks Home Developer submitted a proposal to con-struct a retirement community partially within the forest.

Many citizens of Westerly have an interest in how theland is to be used. Fifteen percent of the population ofWesterly works for the Natural Products TimberCompany. Any increase in business generated fromresources in the forest can potentially help theseemployees. Likewise, 25 percent of the population ismore than 50 years old, and the senior citizens have putgreat pressure on the town to provide a suitable livingenvironment for the elderly in town. The local AudubonSociety is very active, and these citizens have noted thevalue of the forest for providing habitat for many nestingbirds. Audubon members are very aware of just how lit-tle large forest area still exists in northern Illinois. Theyremind Westerly of Sara Johnson's wish that the arearemain beneficial to wildlife. The Parks and RecreationDepartment wants to maintain the forest as a naturereserve and outdoor recreation center to bring muchneeded tourist dollars to the community. The privatelandowner is obviously concerned with how the neigh-boring land will be used and wants to be able to makedecisions regarding his/her own property independently,without pressure.

* 1 acre = 4,047 square meters; 1 square mile = 640 acres

Natural Products Timber Company

The company plans to harvest mature oak trees from thesite. Oak is currently in demand, and the company cansell the wood for a high price in the furniture market. Theslash (residue remaining on the ground after cutting,such as tree tops and bark) could be sold to a local fire-wood dealer. Since 15 percent of the town’s residentsare employed in this company, the increase in businesswould benefit those people financially. In addition, thecompany would hire several additional employees,including a site manager and forester, though not neces-sarily from this community. These economic benefitswill only extend into the future if the wood is harvestedin a way that sustains the forest. The company has ade-quate resources to afford any harvest it plans in theJohnson forest.

Tall Oaks Home Developers

This company began in Westerly in the early 1900swhen much of the area was being settled. Over theyears, the company has overseen much of the housingand business development in the area. The developerhas a good reputation in the Midwest for innovations inconstruction to conserve energy and make use of locallyavailable materials. Several members of the communitywork for this developer and many more work for busi-nesses that contract with the developer, such asplumbers and electricians. Tall Oaks has been lookingfor a place in Westerly to locate a retirement community.They propose that this forest would be an ideal location.Many elderly people have an interest in bird watching.There is no retirement community in Westerly and asthe population ages, there is more and more need forthis housing. Tall Oaks has made efforts to locate thecommunity elsewhere. The only other suitable location,however, is 30 miles north. Tall Oaks has alreadyreceived financial backing from a local bank to developa retirement home. However, Westerly zoning lawrequires that any commercial development plans includean environmental assessment.

Role Play Cards


Audubon Society Members

Sara Johnson was an active member of the localAudubon chapter and a great bird enthusiast. TheAudubon members remind the town that the Johnsonsadvocated the conservation of the forest for wildlife,including birds. Audubon Society members advocate forNeotropical migratory birds and the preservation of atleast some forest. They recognize that some develop-ment may occur but prefer that it be limited and restrict-ed to specific areas of the forest where it will have theleast impact on nesting forest birds. Because of largemembership, the Audubon Society has sufficient mone-tary donations to carry out any projects it desires.

Private Landowner

Just at the border of the Johnson forest is private prop-erty owned by Sara Johnson's daughter and her hus-band, the Millers. Their property consists of a smallhome on 20 wooded acres. The Millers are wildlifeenthusiasts and believe the neighboring Johnson forestprovides them many opportunities to see wildlife ontheir own land. The Millers occasionally harvest woodfrom their property to supplement their income. Thisyear, they had planned to conduct a very large wood har-vest. In addition to bringing in income, they feel theplanned timber cutting on their property will attract addi-tional wildlife to their area, particularly edge-dwellingspecies, such as indigo buntings and white-tailed deer(Odocoileus virginianus). However, the Millers are awarethat changes to the Johnson forest in the near futuremay cause them to change their plans for harvestingtimber on their land. They attend the town meeting tooffer their own proposal for the Johnson forest thatwould complement their plans for their own land. TheMillers are also concerned that if the Johnson forest isdeveloped, it will add significant traffic and noise neartheir property.

Parks and Recreation Department

This Department has been under pressure by theChamber of Commerce to increase tourism in Westerly.The Chamber of Commerce feels that Westerly currentlylacks outdoor recreational opportunities. The town islocated close enough to a large urban center to bringvacationers. By developing more recreation opportuni-ties in Westerly, the Chamber of Commerce hopes todraw some of these people into Westerly to spendmoney in local restaurants, shops and hotels. They pro-pose a large park, including trails for nature observa-tion, hiking and cross-country skiing and a nature cen-ter. The extent of development, such as amount of park-ing, building space and trail configuration must be dis-cussed. By law, any Parks development must include anenvironmental assessment to determine impacts onwildlife. Park staff will want to make sure there is ade-quate habitat for the birds and other wildlife within theforest as this is one reason people will come to thearea. The county has already provided grant money toParks and Recreation to develop parks in Westerly.

Map of the Johnson Forest

Johnson’s ForestTown of Westerly

Trurtle Creek

Trurtle Creek

PrivateProperty

Scale: = 1 acre or4,047 square meters(640 acres = onesquare mile)


CLASS TIME: one to two class periods

MATERIALS: whatever students require for their projects

COMMON CORE STANDARDS: English language arts MS Writing 1, MS Writing 2, MS Writing 4, MS Writing 8,MS Speaking and Listening 1, MS Speaking and Listening 2,MS Speaking and Listening 4


Tell the WorldOVERVIEWStudents express what they have learned in this unit toan audience outside of the class.

CONCEPTPeople can act to help conserve Neotropical migratorybird populations and their forest homes.

OBJECTIVESStudents will be able to: 1) review what they havelearned in the other lessons in One Bird—Two Habitats;and 2) teach others about the decline of someNeotropical migratory bird populations.

TEACHER BACKGROUNDPeople are more likely to act on their intentions whenthey have made a public declaration. Here students signa public declaration committing to their continuedinvolvement in Neotropical migratory bird conservation.A sample declaration follows:

We, the students of _____________________ School's

_____ grade class, have learned about declining

Neotropical migratory bird populations. We understand

the need for adequate forest habitat here and in

___________________ (name of country). We will work

towards conservation of Neotropical migratory forest

birds and their habitats and towards education of people

who do not yet understand the issues.

Since methods of scientific inquiry include persuasion,students can use some of the information they have toeducate others regarding the plight of Neotropicalmigratory birds. Students may use a variety of media:poster; poetry; song; skit; painting; public event; letter toa newspaper editor; launching a school yard habitatproject; giving an assembly to the entire school; ormore. Students could "adopt" a forest and clean it up orraise money to purchase a part of the rain forest.

Creation of a butterfly garden may indirectly aidNeotropical migrants: some species feed on theseinsects. Students may continue writing letters to the cul-tural exchange class and educate people in LatinAmerica about this issue. Students may begin a paperrecycling program at school or launch a campaign toeducate people about predacious cat behavior. Foradditional suggestions, see the action-oriented projectsin Appendix I.

One teacher wrote this rap as a model for students.

The Warbler's Warble

I'm just like all you other critters living way out there,I need a place to call home and lots of clean, clear air.I want some tasty bugs, and some stuff to build a nest,And if I have a choice, I'm gonna' get the best.So let trees grow tall and don't do me no wrongAnd I'll reward your days with my noble song.I'll eat a lot of bugs and keep your crops intactIf you're careful with my forest and conserve my habitat.

— Janet Peterson, Wisconsin

PROCEDURE1. Divide the class into cooperative groups. Ask thatstudents assign roles amongst themselves asresponsibilities become clear within each group.They should document each role.

2. Ask each group to develop a public declaration andsign it. Read the sample provided. They shouldwrite one based on their real beliefs and intentions.When everyone has signed the public declaration inhis/her group, have someone from each group readthe declaration. Post the declarations for all to see.

3. As a follow-up to their declaration, have each groupplan a presentation to teach others about the issue.Read the rap aloud as a suggestion. Encourage


action-oriented projects. Have the group write: 1)what message they want to convey; 2) to whichaudience; and 3) through which medium or project.

4. Provide limited time for each group to share theirproject ideas, then have them work on their projects.

5. Before having students present their completed proj-ects to any audience outside the class, discuss themessages conveyed. Check for any misrepresenta-tions or misconceptions. These can be addressed byraising further questions or assigning further research.

MODIFICATIONSThe class may decide to work on one large projecttogether.

EXTENSION1. When the projects are finished, make them avail-able to the rest of the school or to the entire com-munity. Plan and promote an event for "InternationalMigratory Bird Day," officially the second Saturday inMay, to raise public awareness of the plight ofNeotropical migrants. Put displays in local businesswindows. Raise money to donate to forest conser-vation projects. Go on the radio and let students talkabout the projects they have completed.

ASSESSMENT1. Evaluate student projects as illustrations of studentunderstanding of the issue.


Acadian flycatcher Empidonax virescensAmerican redstart Setophaga ruticillaBaltimore oriole Icterus galbulabank swallow Riparia ripariabarn swallow Hirundo rusticabay-breasted warbler Dendroica castaneablack-and-white warbler Mniotilta variablack-billed cuckoo (T) Coccyzus erythropthalmusblue-gray gnatcatcher Polioptila caeruleablue-winged warbler Vermivora cyanopterabobolink Dolichonyx oryzivorusbroad-winged hawk Buteo platypteruscerulean warbler (T) Dendroica ceruleachestnut-sided warbler Dendroica pensylvanicachimney swift Chaetura pelagicachipping sparrow Spizella passerinecliff swallow Petrochelidon pyrrhonotacommon nighthawk Chordeiles minorcommon yellowthroat Geothlypis trichasdickcissel Spiza americanaeastern kingbird Tyrannus tyrannuseastern whip-poor-will Caprimulgus vociferuseastern wood-pewee Contopus virensgrasshopper sparrow Ammodramus savannarumgray catbird Dumetella carolinensisgreat crested flycatcher Myiarchus crinitushooded warbler Wilsonia citrinahouse wren Troglodytes aedon

indigo bunting Passerina cyanealeast flycatcher Empidonax minimusLouisiana waterthrush Parkesia motacillanorthern parula Parula americananorthern rough-winged swallow Stelgidopteryx serripennisorchard oriole Icterus spuriusosprey Pandion haliaetusovenbird Seiurus aurocapillaperegrine falcon (T) Falco peregrinusprairie warbler Dendroica discolorprothonotary warbler Protonotaria citreapurple martin Progne subisred-eyed vireo Vireo olivaceusrose-breasted grosbeak Pheucticus ludovicianusruby-throated hummingbird Archilochus colubrisscarlet tanager Piranga olivaceaupland sandpiper (E) Bartramia longicaudaveery Catharus fuscescenswarbling vireo Vireo gilvuswhite-eyed vireo Vireo griseuswillow flycatcher Empidonax trailliiwood thrush Hylocichla mustelinaworm-eating warbler Helmitheros vermivorumyellow warbler Dendroica petechiayellow-billed cuckoo Coccyzus americanusyellow-breasted chat Icteria virensyellow-throated vireo Vireo flavifrons

Appendix A

Some Neotropical MigrantsPresent in Illinois

(E) = endangered in Illinois n (T) = threatened in Illinois

YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO


Scientific Name . . . . . .Coccyzus americanusSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Cuclillo PiquiganaldoPresent in Illinois . . . . .early May to early OctoberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .common migrant and summer resident; a decline in population noted between 1909 and

1957 with decrease in orchards and destruction of hedgerowsIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .woodland, woodland edge and orchardsWinter Range . . . . . . . .southern Central America to northern South AmericaLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .12" (30 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.8 oz. (50 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gray-brown with red tint to wing tips, white belly, white tips on tail feathers, underside of bill

yellow; sexes alikeSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a series of “ka” notes followed by slower and longer notes at the endNest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .medium height to low in vegetation (three to 13 feet); roots and twigs with a lining of mosses

and grassesEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .two to five light blue or green-blue eggs; nesting occurs from late May to late August; female

provides most of the care# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .oneFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .insects (mostly caterpillars; also beetles, fall webworms, cicadas) with some fruit (mulberries

and others)Habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .often goes unnoticed because it is sluggish and tends to stay in dense vegetationInteresting Facts . . . . . .sometimes will “rob” the nests of other birds, eating the eggs; is nicknamed “rain crow” as it

is thought to forecast rain with its song

Sources of InformationAmerican Ornithologists’ Union. 2010. Check-list of North American birds. http://www.aou.org/checklist/north/index.phpBohlen, H. David. 1978. An annotated check-list of the birds of Illinois. Illinois State Museum, Popular Science Series, Volume IX. Springfield,Illinois. 156 pp.Bohlen, H. David. 1989. The birds of Illinois. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana. 240 pp.Erlich, Paul R., Dobkin, David S. and Darryl Wheye. 1988. The birder’s handbook: a field guide to the natural history of North American birds.Simon and Schuster, New York, New York. 720 pp. New Jersey Conservation Foundation. 1994. The songbird connection.

Appendix B

YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO


SCARLET TANAGER

Scientific Name . . . . . .Piranga olivaceaSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Tangara EscarlataPresent in Illinois . . . . .late April to early OctoberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .common migrant and uncommon summer residentIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewide; nesting more commonly in the northern two-thirds of the stateIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .wooded areas, preferring bottomland woodlands but occurs in uplands alsoWinter Range . . . . . . . .Columbia south to eastern Ecuador and Peru to northwestern BoliviaLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .7" (18 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.0 oz. (28 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .male: bright red with black wings and tail feathers; female: yellow belly, dusky green head

and back and brown or black wings and tailSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a raspy series of notes similar to those of an American robin; also has a distinctive chip note,

“chip-burr”Nest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .thinly woven nests are built on horizontal branches at high levels, usually in oak or hickory

trees; made of twigs and small roots and lined with thin stems and grassesEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .three to five green-blue eggs marked with brown# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .oneFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .insects (beetles, bugs, butterflies, moths, grasshoppers, locusts) with some fruit (mulberry

Morus spp., blackberry Rubus allegheniensis)Habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .difficult to see as it stays high in the forest canopyInteresting Facts . . . . . .may eat as many as 2,100 gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) caterpillars in an hour


SCARLET TANAGER


WOOD THRUSH

Scientific Name . . . . . .Hylocichla mustelinaSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Zorzal del BosquePresent in Illinois . . . . .late April to late SeptemberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .common migrant and summer residentIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .bottomland woodlandsWinter Range . . . . . . . .south Texas to northwestern ColumbiaLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.25" (18.5 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.9 oz (48 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .brown with rust-colored head, white belly with dark brown spots; sexes similarSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .flute-like “ee-o-lay” and a quick “pip-pip-pip-pip” callNest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .built in moist areas; made of weed stalks, grasses and leaves with a middle mud layer; lined

with rootlets; in low- to medium-height treesEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .three to five blue eggs laid from May to early July# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .often twoFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .insectivorous when feeding young; large amounts of fruit during migrationHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .calls from the woods at dawn and dusk; usually stays on or near the ground in heavily wood-

ed bottomlandsInteresting Facts . . . . . .nests heavily parasitized by brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater)


WOOD THRUSH


AMERICAN REDSTART

Scientific Name . . . . . .Setophaga ruticillaSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Candelita NortenaPresent in Illinois . . . . .early May to early OctoberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .common migrant and locally common summer residentIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .bottomland woodlandsWinter Range . . . . . . . .Southern U.S. to South AmericaLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.75" (12 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.3 oz. (8.5 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . male: black with a white belly and red-orange wing and tail patches; female: olive-

brown with yellow patchesSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sweet, buzzy notes “zee, zee, zee, zee, zwee”Nest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cup of roots and twigs decorated with lichens and feathers; 10 to 20' high in the fork of a

small tree; uses willows extensivelyEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .three to five white eggs with red-brown markings# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .unknownFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .insects with occasional berries and seedsHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .flits through the leaves catching insectsInteresting Facts . . . . . .bristles on face probably protect eyes from damage by squirming insects; often referred to

as looking like a “black and orange butterfly;” nicknamed “redtail”


AMERICAN REDSTART


OVENBIRD

Scientific Name . . . . . .Seiurus aurocapillaSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Chipe Suelero CoronadoPresent in Illinois . . . . .late April to mid-OctoberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .abundant migrant, locally uncommon summer residentIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .woodlandsWinter Range . . . . . . . .south through Central America and the Caribbean to northern VenezuelaLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.5-6.5" (13.75-16.25 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.5-1.0 oz. (14.0-28.8 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .olive-brown above, striped belly, light orange patch on the top of the headSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .“teacher, teacher, teacher”Nest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .on the forest floor; an open nest of dried grasses, leaves and mosses, often with a moss lin-

ing; roofed with leaves and branches with small slit entranceEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .three to six; white with brown markings# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .occasionally twoFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .insectsHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .looks and acts more like a thrush than a warbler; stays on or near the ground, walking

through the leaf litterInteresting Facts . . . . . .very sensitive to fragmentation of forested habitats; a frequent brown-headed cowbird

(Molothrus ater) host; also called the “golden-crowned thrush”


OVENBIRD


EASTERN WHIP-POOR-WILL

Scientific Name . . . . . .Caprimulgus vociferusSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Chotacabras Griton o RuidosoPresent in Illinois . . . . .mid-April to late-SeptemberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .common migrant; common summer resident south; fairly common summer resident central

and northIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .woodlandsWinter Range . . . . . . . .northern Mexico to western PanamaLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .9" (23 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.2 oz. (55 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .brown-gray body with black markings and white throatSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .usually sings at night with 50 to 100 repetitions of “whip-poor-will” in each setNest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .no nest; eggs directly on groundEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .two white eggs with gray-brown dots# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .occasionally twoFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . .insects (moths)Habits . . . . . . . . . . . . .nocturnal bird that flies near the ground with its mouth open to catch moths and other flying

insects; feeds over brushy pastures and along woodland edgesInteresting Facts . . . . . .record number of calls in a row is 1,088; reproductive cycle of the whip-poor-will is synchro-

nized to the lunar cycle, resulting in the young being hatched when there are moonlit nights,permitting the adults to forage for insects to feed the young


EASTERN WHIP-POOR-WILL


RUBY-THROATED HUMMINGBIRD

Scientific Name . . . . . .Archilochus colubrisSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Colibri Garganta de RubiPresent in Illinois . . . . .late April to early OctoberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .common migrant and fairly common summer residentIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .frequents woodlands, woodland edge, weedy areas and gardensWinter Range . . . . . . . .northwest Mexico and extreme south Texas to Costa Rica, occasionally western PanamaLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.25" (8 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.1 oz. (3 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iridescent green back and head with white belly; bright red throat on maleSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .high squeaky notesNest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 to 1.25" cup of leaves held together with spider webs; decorated with lichens and mossesEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .two white# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .two or threeFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .nectar, tree sap, small insects and spidersHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .the male courtship display is a flight of wide arcs; both males and females are highly aggres-

sive and fight for space and foodInteresting Facts . . . . . .smallest bird in North America; favors columbine (Aquilegia canadensis) and trumpet creeper

vines (Campsis radicans) in the spring and summer and jewelweed (Impatiens spp.) plantsin the fall


RUBY-THROATED HUMMINGBIRD


BROAD-WINGED HAWK

Scientific Name . . . . . .Buteo platypterusSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Gavilan AludoPresent in Illinois . . . . .early April to mid-MayIllinois Status . . . . . . . .common migrant; uncommon summer residentIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .woodlands; usually follows rivers and bluff areasWinter Range . . . . . . . .southern Mexico to South AmericaLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .17" (43 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 oz. (45 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .dark brown with white belly marked with brown/red; large black-and-white bands on the tailSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .high-pitched “pweeeeee” trailing at the endNest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .dead leaves and twigs lined with lichens or oak bark chips; 15 to 50' high in crotch of tree;

often near water and only in heavily wooded areasEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .two to three white eggs with brown-purple markings# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .oneFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meat-eater (small mammals, birds, reptiles, snakes, frogs, insects)Habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .perch on trees near a forest clearing and wait for prey to pass Interesting Facts . . . . . .one of the most highly migratory hawks in Illinois; migrate in huge flocks, rising on warm

thermal air currents (called a “kettle of hawks”)


BROAD-WINGED HAWK


ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK

Scientific Name . . . . . .Pheucticus ludovicianusSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Picogrueso PechirrosadoPresent in Illinois . . . . .common migrant and summer residentIllinois Status . . . . . . . .late April to early OctoberIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .woodlands, residential areas, parksWinter Range . . . . . . . .central Mexico to Venezuela and EcuadorLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .8" (20 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.6 oz. (45 g) Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .male: black and white with a red triangle on the breast; female: brown with brown-and-white

striped bellySong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .similar to that of the American robin (Turdus migratorius); call is a sharp “chink”Nest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a loose cup in the fork of a branch in a tree or shrub; 6 to 15' highEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .three to four green eggs marked with brown# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .one to twoFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .insects (potato beetle Leptinotarsa decemlineata, tent caterpillar Malacosoma disstria, gypsy

moth Lymantria dispar) and fruitHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feeds in trees and on the groundInteresting Facts . . . . . .nests are often parasitized by brown-headed cowbirds; male and female build the nest

together; male sometimes helps gather food for the young


ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK


BOBOLINK

Scientific Name . . . . . .Dolichonyx oryzivorusSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .ChambergoPresent in Illinois . . . . .late April to early OctoberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .common migrant and summer resident north; fairly common migrant central and south; occa-

sional summer resident centralIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .fallow fields and marsh areasWinter Range . . . . . . . .southern South America east of the Andes, from Brazil south to northern ArgentinaLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .6.5-8" (16.25-20 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-1.25 oz. (28-35 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .breeding male: solid black belly and is buff and white above; female: buff with dark stripes on

headSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a burbling song; flight note is a sharp “pink”Nest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a well concealed nest on the ground in dense forbs; uses a natural or scraped depression;

made of coarse grasses and forbs and lined with finer grassesEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .three to seven buff-colored eggs with dark spots# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .oneFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .insects and grass/forb seeds; fruit and nectar in the winterHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .female runs from the nest before taking flightInteresting Facts . . . . . .populations have decreased due to the early cutting of hayfields; uncommon brown-headed

cowbird (Molothrus ater) host; nicknamed the “white-winged blackbird”


BOBOLINK


HOODED WARBLER

Scientific Name . . . . . .Wilsonia citrinaSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Reinita EncapuchadaPresent in Illinois . . . . .mid-April to mid-AugustIllinois Status . . . . . . . .uncommon migrant and summer residentIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewide; most often in southern thirdIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .shaded hillsides of bottomland forestsWinter Range . . . . . . . .Caribbean slopes and lowlands of eastern Mexico to PanamaLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .5" (2.5 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.4 oz. (10.5 g) Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .olive green with yellow belly; male has a black hoodSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a sharp “chink” note and “wee-tee, wee-tee, wee-TEE-o” songNest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a cup built in a shrub near the ground; made of bark, plant fibers and dead leavesEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .three to five; cream-colored with red-brown markings# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .usually oneFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .insectsHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feeds by hovering and plucking insects from leavesInteresting Facts . . . . . .fall migration goes almost undetected


HOODED WARBLER


HOUSE WREN

Scientific Name . . . . . .Troglodytes aedonSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .unknownPresent in Illinois . . . . .mid-April to mid-OctoberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .common migrant and summer resident; rare winter resident in southIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .woodlands and residential areasWinter Range . . . . . . . .south throughout MexicoLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .5" (13 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.35-0.46 oz. (10-13 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gray-brown with faint eye stripeSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .rapid, bubbly trillNest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .in a tree cavity, woodpecker hole or nest box; made of sticks and lined with soft materials; 4

to 30' above the groundEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .five to eight pink-white eggs with faint dots# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .two to threeFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .invertebrates (millipedes, spiders, snails)Habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .often destroys other bird’s nests by piercing their eggs and removing the eggs and youngInteresting Facts . . . . . .nicknamed the “Jenny wren;” rare brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) host


HOUSE WREN


UPLAND SANDPIPER

Scientific Name . . . . . .Bartramia longicaudaSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Ganga (uno de los playeros)Present in Illinois . . . . .mid-April to mid-SeptemberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .uncommon migrant and summer residentIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .grasslands, pastures and hayfieldsWinter Range . . . . . . . .south to central Argentina and UruguayLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .12.5" (32 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-8 oz. (143-218 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .long, yellow legs; long, thin neck; mottled above and below; white- streaked bellySong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .long, mournful rolling whistleNest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .in a depression with grasses arching over the scrape; lined with dry grassesEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .four; buff with brown speckles# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .unknownFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .insects, seeds, invertebratesHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .seldom nests near water; will not fly directly to the nestInteresting Facts . . . . . .rare brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) host; populations are declining; nicknamed the

“grass plover” or “prairie pigeon;” one of Illinois’ endangered bird species


UPLAND SANDPIPER


INDIGO BUNTING

Scientific Name . . . . . .Passerina cyaneaSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Gorrion AzulPresent in Illinois . . . . .late April to mid-OctoberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .abundant migrant and summer resident; very rare winter resident in south and central part of

stateIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .roadsides and forest edgesWinter Range . . . . . . . .south Florida and central Mexico, south to Panama, Greater Antilles and BahamasLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.25-5.75" (13.13-14.38 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.4-0.7 g (11.2-21.4 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .male: bright black-blue; female: brown with paler bellySong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .notes usually in pairs: “sweet-sweet,” “chew-chew”Nest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .eight inches to 7.5' high in berry, rose (Rosa spp.) and greenbrier (Smilax spp.) bushes or

tall weeds and tangles of vines; made of well-woven dry grasses, dead leaves, bark strips,snake skin with lining of rootlets, fine grasses, feathers, hair

Eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .three to four; pale blue-white# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .twoFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grains and berriesHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .frequent brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) host; will occasionally bury cowbird eggs by

building a new floor in the nestInteresting Facts . . . . . .populations have increased since 1900 with the abandonment of pastures and increased

timber loss


INDIGO BUNTING


GRAY CATBIRD

Scientific Name . . . . . .Dumetella carolinensisSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .unknownPresent in Illinois . . . . .late April to late OctoberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .common migrant and summer resident; rare winter residentIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .forest edges, brushy areas, residential areasWinter Range . . . . . . . .south to central Panama, Bermuda, Greater AntillesLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.25" (24 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.75-1.5 oz. (21-42 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .slate gray with black capSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a mimic that sings phrases only once; mews like a catNest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .in dense thicket; a bulky cup of grasses, forbs, twigs, leaves with a lining of fine materials;

two to 10' high in treeEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .three to five; blue-green# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .twoFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .insects and fruitHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .uncommon brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) host; will eject cowbird eggs from its nestInteresting Facts . . . . . .nicknamed the “Carolina mockingbird;” like other mimics, includes songs and calls of other

birds in its song; northern mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos) repeats phrases three times,brown thrasher (Toxostoma rufum) twice and catbird once


GRAY CATBIRD


DICKCISSEL

Scientific Name . . . . . .Spiza americanaSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Sabanero AmericanoPresent in Illinois . . . . .late April to late AugustIllinois Status . . . . . . . .abundant migrant and summer resident in central and south; fairly common migrant and

summer resident northIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .open areas, especially clover fields and roadside bushesWinter Range . . . . . . . .southwest Mexico to northern South AmericaLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-7" (15-17.5 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.8-1.0 oz. (23-29 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .male: yellow breast and black bib; female: no bib and has streaking on sidesSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .repeats “Dick-ciss-ciss-ciss” or “chup-chup-klip-klip-klip”Nest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .on or near the ground (1" to 1')Eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .three to six; pale blue# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .one; second possible if move to new areaFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grains, grass and forb seeds, insectsHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .often seen perching on telephone wires and fences; frequently a brown-headed cowbird

(Molothrus ater) hostInteresting Facts . . . . . .nests often damaged by mowing machines; nicknamed the “little meadowlark”


DICKCISSEL


PEREGRINE FALCON

Scientific Name . . . . . .Falco peregrinusSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Falcon PeregrinoPresent in Illinois . . . . .early April to early NovemberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .nests in large urban areas; occasional migrantIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .along large rivers and lakesWinter Range . . . . . . . .south through Central America and West Indies to Tierra del FuegoLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-20" (37.5-50 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .20-40 oz. (560-1,120 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .long, pointed wings and long, narrow tail; adults are slaty-backed, barred on the belly; young

birds are browner, heavily streaked below; heavy “mustache” visable when perchingSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .repeats “we’chew” or a rapid rasping “cack, cack, cack”Nest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .in trees 50-200' high; also roof tops and cliffsEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .three to four; white# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .oneFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .waterfowl, pigeons and shorebirdsHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .female is larger than the male and will attack prey first and eat first when they hunt together;

pairs roost together and hunt cooperativelyInteresting Facts . . . . . .nicknamed the “duck hawk”


PEREGRINE FALCON


BALTIMORE ORIOLE

Scientific Name . . . . . .Icterus galbulaSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Calandria del NortePresent in Illinois . . . . .mid-April to mid-SeptemberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .common migrant and summer resident, very rare winter residentIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .woodlands and trees along watercourses, ponds and lakesWinter Range . . . . . . . .from Central Mexico south to northeastern South America, Greater AntillesLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .8.5 ” (22 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.8-1.5 oz. (22.3-41.5 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .male: orange-yellow with black head; female: olive-graySong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a series of rich, piping whistled notesNest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .woven, pendant nest placed high and overhanging an openingEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pale gray to blue-white with darker markings# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .oneFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .insects, fruits, nectar; some spiders and budsHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .uncommon brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) host; may eject cowbird eggs from nestInteresting Facts . . . . . .nicknamed the “hand-nest bird;” nests most commonly seen in winter; takes four to 15 days

to build the nest


BALTIMORE ORIOLE


BAY-BREASTED WARBLER

Scientific Name . . . . . .Dendroica castaneaSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Reinita CastanaPresent in Illinois . . . . .early May to mid-OctoberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .fairly common spring migrant, common fall migrantIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .open woodlands and groves of treesWinter Range . . . . . . . .central Panama, south to northern South AmericaLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-6" (12.5-15 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.37-0.53 oz. (10.7-15.1 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .male: chestnut throat, upper breast and sides and a large spot of pale buff on the side of the

neck; female: paler; fall birds totally differentSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .high song, “teesi, teesi, teesi”Nest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .four to 40' in trees; loose or compact cup of grasses with rootlets and hair liningEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .four to five; white to off-white with brown markings# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .unknownFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .primarily insects; some fruitHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .rare brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) hostInteresting Facts . . . . . .number of eggs laid is often correlated with the abundance of spruce budworms

(Choristoneura spp.)


BAY-BREASTED WARBLER


CERULEAN WARBLER

Scientific Name . . . . . .Dendroica ceruleaSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .unknownPresent in Illinois . . . . .late April to early SeptemberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .common migrant and summer resident in south; uncommon migrant and local summer resi-

dent central and northIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .mature deciduous trees near riversWinter Range . . . . . . . .Venezuela and Columbia south to eastern Peru and northern BoliviaLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-5" (10-12.5 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.2 oz. (89.6 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .male: blue above with white belly, narrow black ring crosses upper breast; female: blue-gray

and olive-green above and white below with two white wing-bars and white line over the eyeSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .wheezy and rapid buzzy notes “zray, zray, zray, zray, zreee”Nest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-80' high in deciduous trees; cup nest on horizontal branch far from trunk; made of bark,

weed stalks, lichens, moss with moss liningEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .three to five; gray with brown spots# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .oneFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .insectsHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .difficult to see the bird after the trees leaf out; sometimes seen when it ventures to the

ground to drink, bathe or gather spider silk and other nesting materials; uncommon brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) host

Interesting Facts . . . . . .very sensitive to fragmentation of breeding habitat


CERULEAN WARBLER


CHIMNEY SWIFT

Scientific Name . . . . . .Chaetura pelagicaSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Vencejo de ChimeneaPresent in Illinois . . . . .mid-April to early OctoberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .common migrant and summer residentIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .originally woodlands; now mainly cities and towns; swamps with hollow treesWinter Range . . . . . . . .western Peru, upper Amazon Basin of eastern Peru, northern Chile and northwestern BrazilLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.5" (14 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.6-1.0 oz. (17-30 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .dark brown with paler throatSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .piercing “chips” or “ticks”Nest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .half saucer of twigs glued with saliva; formerly in tree holes, now in chimneysEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .four or five; white# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .oneFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .flying insectsHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .builds nest in 18-30 days; grabs small dry twigs for nests and breaks them off while in flight;

young leave the nest when three weeks old and use sharp, strong claws to cling and crawlon vertical walls

Interesting Facts . . . . . .seldom seen except while in flight; feed, drink and gather nesting materials all during flight;often called a “flying cigar” due to its body shape


CHIMNEY SWIFT


PURPLE MARTIN

Scientific Name . . . . . .Progne subisSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Golondrina PurpuraPresent in Illinois . . . . .late March to mid-SeptemberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .common migrant and summer residentIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .particularly numerous in residential areas; forage over open areas, including golf courses,

cemeteries, lawnsWinter Range . . . . . . . .South America east of the Andes from Venezuela south to northern Bolivia and southeast

BrazilLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .8.5" (22 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.9 oz. (53 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .male: glossy blue-black; female: dusky blackSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a series of rich gurgling notes; a low “chew” noteNest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .in hollow tree, woodpecker hole, eave of building, nest box; grasses, leaves, stalks, feathers

and mud; usually near waterEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .three to five; dull white# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .one to threeFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .flying insectsHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .house sparrows (Passer domesticus) and European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) can cause a

problem by competing for nest sites; removal of dead trees decreased the availability of nestsites

Interesting Facts . . . . . .largest North American swallow


PURPLE MARTIN


GRASSHOPPER SPARROW

Scientific Name . . . . . .Ammodramus savannarumSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Gorron Chicharra de Puerto RicoPresent in Illinois . . . . .mid-April to early OctoberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .common migrant and summer resident; rare winter resident in central and southIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .grasslands, pastures and fallow fieldsWinter Range . . . . . . . .south to northern South America, greater AntillesLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .5" (13 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.6 oz. (16.8 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .dark brown head with stripe, chestnut- and black-striped back, buff bellySong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grasshopper-like and buzzingNest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .in a slight depression on the ground, the rim flush with the ground; hidden by overhanging

grasses and forbs; dried grasses with a lining of finer materialsEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .four to five; creamy white with spots# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .twoFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .invertebrates, grasses and forb seedsHabits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .uncommon brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) hostInteresting Facts . . . . . .nests often destroyed by mowing machines; nicknamed the “cricket sparrow”


GRASSHOPPER SPARROW


OSPREY

Scientific Name . . . . . .Pandion haliaetusSpanish . . . . . . . . . . . .Aguila de Mar o Anuila PescadoraPresent in Illinois . . . . .early April to late OctoberIllinois Status . . . . . . . .uncommon migrantIllinois Range . . . . . . . .statewideIllinois Habitat . . . . . . . .along rivers and lakesWinter Range . . . . . . . .south to Chile and northern ArgentinaLength . . . . . . . . . . . . .21-24" (52.5-60 cm)Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .42.7-66.5 oz. (1,220-1,900 g)Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .black above and clear white below, head largely white wih a broad black patch through

cheeksSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a series of short, sharp, cheeping whistles: “cheep, cheep” or “chewk, chewk”Nest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .tops of dead or living trees in standing water; often reused year after yearEggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .two to four; white with brown markings# Broods/Year . . . . . . . .oneFood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .fishes (primarily live)Habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .female fed by mate from the time they form their pair bonds until she has laid all the eggs;

male will sometimes incubate eggs; flies with a decided kink or crook to its wings; hovers onbeating wings then plunges feet first to catch fishes

Interesting Facts . . . . . .populations crashed from the 1950s through 1970s from exposure to DDT, shooting and dis-turbance of the nesting grounds; conservation programs and use of nesting platforms havehelped bring populations back; called the “fish hawk”


OSPREY


I. IntroductionAbout 50-75 percent of the birds that breed in the easternforests of North America are long-distance migrants,meaning that they spend the winters in Central or SouthAmerica. Although we think of them as being NorthAmerican birds, many spend more time in the tropics (6-8months) than they do up here (4 months). Recently, scien-tists have found alarming evidence that many of NorthAmerica's migratory songbirds have experienced a seriousdecline in population size.

The Neotropical migratory bird system has beenreferred to as a "river of birds" that flows annually fromNorth to South America, and then back again. Migratorybirds pass through a series of different environmentsalong their annual route from breeding to winteringgrounds, which are often separated by distances of3,000-5,000 km. Individual birds can travel over 8,000km in a single year, and for small songbirds, this addsup to well over 25,000 km in a lifetime. They are vulner-able to environmental perturbations in any one of theselocations along their journey. In the past several hun-dred years, human-caused habitat destruction has radi-cally changed the landscape in which these birds traveland breed.

The songbird decline is an excellent example of the dif-ficulties encountered in conservation biology, and therole that ecology can play in teasing apart a complexbiological system.1) The physical scale of the problem is huge: it poten-tially encompasses all of the New World. Migratorybirds require suitable habitats on the breedinggrounds in Canada and the U.S., on the winteringgrounds in Central and South America, and all alongtheir migratory routes.

2) There are a large number of possible causes, allacting simultaneously. Determining which is themost important requires extensive research.

3) The ecological impact is huge. It has been estimat-ed that 3-5 billion birds migrate annually betweenNorth America and the Neotropics. These birds playa critical role in the ecosystem as consumers andas prey. How do we even begin to estimate how

changes in such a large community will affect ourforests and other animals?

4) A large number of different species is involved, andeach is affected to different degrees by environmen-tal perturbations.

5) This is an international problem. Many differentcountries "host" migratory birds during the variousstages of their life cycle; these countries differ dra-matically in their conservation ethic, economic sta-tus, population growth, and political stability.

The migratory songbird decline problem can be brokendown into two key questions: 1) How widespread andsevere is the population decline of songbirds? and 2)What are the main causes of the decline?

II. Migratory songbirds: evidence for the decline

a) Case historiesStart with some examples of species that have declinedmarkedly in parts of their range over the past fewdecades.

These data are based on sampling the same breedingpopulation intermittently over a period of 40 years, in aforest habitat that has not been seriously disturbed overthis time (Terborgh 1989). Four species show a declinein population size ranging from 65-100 percent. Why arethese species declining? First let’s look at the generalcharacteristics of these species. These birds have anumber of important similarities: all are Neotropicalmigrant songbirds, and all breed in forest habitats. Butthere are differences in where they overwinter, wherethey nest in the forest, and their food resources.1) Acadian flycatcher: breeds in northeastern U.S.; asname suggests they eat mostly flying insects duringbreeding season; overwinters Central America;probably territorial during winter; also eats fruit inwinter.

2) red-eyed vireo: breeds over much of North America;gleans insects off leaf surfaces; nests in treebranches 2-5 m off the ground; overwinters Mexicoto South America.

Appendix CEcology And Conservation:The Decline Of Songbirds

by Dr. Bridget J. Stutchbury*


3) wood thrush: breeds in northeastern U.S.; feeds oninsects and other invertebrates on the ground; nests1-2 m high in shrubs and trees; overwinters Mexicoto South America; territorial in winter.

4) ovenbird: a warbler that breeds in Canada and east-ern U.S.; feeds and nests on the ground; overwin-ters Mexico and Central America.

These species represent a typical cross-section of song-birds (Order Passeriformes), and are in four differentFamilies (flycatchers, vireos, thrushes, and warblers).There is nothing unusual about their breeding or winteringhabits that could account for the dramatic decline in num-bers.

Are these four examples merely part of natural fluctua-tions in population size in a single location, or do theyrepresent the tip of the iceberg; that is, a widespreadand severe decline for all migratory songbirds?

b) Population monitoringIs the decline for real? How many species are involved?How rapidly are different populations declining? To getthe answers to these questions we need to be able tocount birds: not as easy as you might think.

It is very difficult to systematically census animal popula-tions that are highly mobile, widespread, and have inter-continental home ranges. Many different methods havebeen used to census bird populations; each of whichhas a number of shortcomings. Nevertheless, consistentpatterns emerge from the data.

Two main census methods have been used to look atpopulation trends: (1) Breeding Bird Survey, (2)Migration Counts.

Breeding Bird Survey: Volunteers intensively survey allbirds seen and heard during 3 minute stops, every 0.5mile along roadsides. Each route consists of 50 stops,and is covered during the 2-3 hour period after dawn,sometime during the peak of the breeding season. Over2,000 routes (i.e. 50,000 miles) are covered acrossCanada and the U.S. each year. This massive surveyhas been taking place since the mid-1960's, leading to avery valuable data set on long term population numbers.

Shortcomings: restricted to roadsides, so some habitats(i.e. wetlands) are poorly sampled. Areas in northernCanada have few roads, so are not adequately sam-pled.

Results: Many Neotropical migrants show a populationdecline in the period 1978-1987; before this time popu-lations were stable or increasing (Robbins et al. 1989,Sauer and Droege 1992). Declines were noted most

often for migrant birds nesting in eastern forest habitats.

Migration counts: These provide an independent countof breeding bird populations. During spring and fall,birds are surveyed through observation and capture asthey migrate through the area. Long Point BirdObservatory, on the shores of Lake Erie in Ontario, hasbeen censusing migrating bird populations since 1961.There have been some changes in the habitat at thecount areas, so long term changes in numbers of par-ticular species could be partly due to local habitatchanges. However, estimates of population changesfrom these migration counts at Long Point are closelycorrelated with estimates from the Ontario BreedingBird Survey (Hussell et al. 1992), indicating that thesesurveys reflect real changes in population size.

We can see that the wood thrush and ovenbird showsignificant declines in both survey methods. However,even though red-eyed vireos declined significantly fromearlier studies (which was based on a single location),there is no evidence for a widespread decline fromeither BBS or migration count data.

These large scale surveys are essential for monitoringlong term trends in populations, and determiningwhether observed changes are taking place over theentire range of a species, or just on a local scale.

c) Population trends of migratory vs. nonmigratory birdsThe annual surveys of bird populations tell us that manysongbird species are declining in numbers over largeparts of their range. What is causing this decline? Thesource of the problem could lie at the breeding grounds,migratory stopping points en route, and/or theNeotropics where they spend the winter.

One way to find out where the problem lies is to com-pare the decline of migratory and nonmigratory birds. Ifa major cause of the decline lies in habitat destruction ofthe tropics, then only migratory species should showstrong population declines.

In fact, it is the Neotropical migrants that are most likelyto be declining. Of 20 Neotropical migrant songbirdswith significant population trends, 85 percent were indecline (Robbins et al. 1989). In contrast, only 31 per-cent of temperate migrants and nonmigrants weredeclining significantly.

More detailed analyses of Breeding Bird Survey datahave found that population trends can differ greatlybetween habitats and geographic regions, making it diffi-cult to test hypotheses about which species are expect-ed to be declining (see Hagan and Johnston 1992).Nevertheless, migrants that breed in eastern forests are


consistently found to be the group with most seriousdeclines, although other species are also in trouble(Askins et al. 1990). Habitats are changing drastically throughout the entire range of migratorybirds, so it is quite likely that a number of different fac-tors are reducing their survival and reproductive suc-cess. We must look to both the breeding grounds andthe tropics in a search for the cause of the decline.

III. Causes for the decline: temperate zone

a) Forest fragmentation and habitat lossThe forest habitat of eastern North America haschanged dramatically since the 1600s. Two majoreffects: (1) less area covered by forest, and (2) frag-mentation of the remaining forest into smaller pieces.

It has been well established that the composition of birdcommunities varies with forest area (e.g. Robbins 1980,Askins et al. 1987). Many songbirds are common only inlarge tracts of forest, and are rare or absent in smallwoodlots. These are "area-sensitive" species, who avoidtiny patches of habitat. The red-eyed vireo and woodthrush are only rarely found in small woodlots, but arecommon in larger forests.

Small patches of forest may contain sufficient food andnesting sites for a particular species, but due to its smallarea, it is not good quality breeding habitat. However,even for the birds that do select smaller forest fragmentsfor nesting, they face the threat of reduced reproductivesuccess. Although a forest may contain a large numberof breeding migrants, these individuals may actually beproducing very few, if any, offspring that survive tobecome adults. Two important factors associated withforest fragmentation are predation and cowbird para-sitism.

b) PredationIn an experiment to quantify how predation rates varywith forest area, artificial bird nests containing quaileggs were placed in standard locations in different sizedforests (Wilcove 1985). The predation rate ranged from25-90 percent in small woodlots, but was only 2 percentin the largest forest. Why are predation rates higher inforest fragments? Some predators of bird nests canmaintain higher population densities in the vicinity ofhuman settlements (raccoons, skunks), where forestfragments are small. Important nest predators on birdsmay also prefer edge habitat (e.g. raccoons, blue jays),which is more extensive in fragmented forests.

c) Cowbird parasitismBrown-headed cowbirds are a major threat to songbirds.Cowbirds are "brood parasites:" they lay their eggs onlyin other species' nests, and leave those host species to

incubate the egg and feed the offspring. So, host song-birds that are "parasitized" expend much effort in raisingcowbird offspring.

Female cowbirds often eject one of the host's eggs, so thehost loses one of its own eggs right away. Furthermore,cowbird nestlings are often bigger than the hostnestlings, and therefore get much of the food that theparents bring to the nest. In general, individuals thathave been parasitized produce fewer offspring of theirown than individuals that escaped parasitism by cow-birds.

How could this account for the recent decline in song-birds? Although cowbirds are native to North America,their natural range was restricted to the prairies.Cowbirds expanded their range eastwards as the forestwas cut and fragmented, and began parasitizing thenew host species that they encountered. The number ofcowbirds in eastern North America has increasedtremendously in the past century.

Cowbirds are much more common at the edge than thecenter of large forest tracts (Brittingham and Temple1983), so forest-interior songbirds were also ecologicallyprotected from cowbird parasitism. However, in smallforest fragments most of the forest is near an edge andtherefore accessible to cowbirds. Forest-interior song-birds have only had cowbirds as a nest threat in thepast 150 years or so. They have no effective behavioraldefenses against cowbirds, such as ejecting the cowbirdeggs from the nest.

In Illinois where very little forest remains, predation ratesin forest fragments averaged 80 percent, and about 75percent of nests were parasitized by brown-headedcowbirds (Robinson 1992). Neotropical migrants aver-aged 3.3 cowbird eggs per nest! Wood thrush wereheavily hit by cowbirds: on average, nests contained 4.4cowbird eggs but only 1.2 wood thrush eggs. Thesepopulations in small forest fragments are maintainedonly by immigration of birds from other parts of therange where reproductive success is higher.

But, what happens when small forest fragments are theonly remaining habitat for a species, and there is noother population that can produce surplus offspring?This has happened to the Kirtland's warbler, a migrantsongbird that is an endangered species. There are onlyabout 200 breeding pairs left, in several forest frag-ments in Michigan (Walkinshaw 1983). Early studiesfound very high rates of brood parasitism, and a corre-sponding low reproductive success. A massive effort toremove adult cowbirds from the breeding areas resultedin lower parasitism, and a greater production of off-spring. The Kirtland's warbler can only survive with


intensive management of cowbird populations on thebreeding grounds.

IV. Causes for the decline: the Neotropics

a) Forest fragmentation and habitat lossForest loss on the wintering grounds of migratory birdsis widespread, and occurring at dramatic rates. About 1-4 percent of the forest is cut down annually, and con-verted to pastures and farms. Some countries like CostaRica and Cuba have already cut down over 80 percentof their original forest.

Much of this destruction has taken place only in the pastfew decades, exactly the period when decline of migra-tory songbirds has been detected. There are severalreasons why forest loss could be a greater problem forbirds on their wintering grounds, compared with thebreeding grounds:1) The density of birds (number of birds living on agiven forest plot) is much higher on the winteringgrounds. The breeding grounds in North Americacover over 40 million square km, but the main win-tering grounds cover only 6 million square km.Migrants must funnel into a relatively small area,and compete with residents for space and food. Inmany different habitats in the northern part of thewintering range (Mexico), migrants make up about50 percent of all the birds in the area.

2) Many species have relatively restricted winterranges, so are extremely vulnerable to forest loss inthose areas. The Bachman's warbler, on the vergeof extinction, was thought to winter only in Cuba,where very little forest now remains.

Relatively little is known about the winter ecology andbehavior of most of our migratory songbirds. However,the notion that individuals are free to wander around insearch of the remaining suitable habitat is not correct.Many species are strongly territorial in the winter sea-son, and return faithfully to the same winter territoryyear after year (Greenberg 1986). Furthermore, habitatselection in many songbirds is innate. While some

species are generalists, and can opportunistically exploitnew foods and habitats in pastures and fields, otherspecies are specialists and avoid novel environments(Greenberg 1983). In some species, males and femaleseven prefer different kinds of habitat (Morton 1990).

Assessing the impact of tropical deforestation onmigrants is hampered by our lack of knowledge. Theresearch effort on wintering songbirds is a tiny fractionof the amount of research conducted on breeding forestbirds in Canada and the U.S. How dependent are cer-tain species on particular winter habitats? How doeswinter survival vary in different kinds of disturbed habi-tat? How do the territorial systems of wintering migrantsaffect the survival and success of yearling birds? Whatimpact do pesticides and parasites have on migrantbirds while they are in the tropics? Decisions on how tomanage the remaining forests, and which habitats aremost critical, will depend on obtaining the answers tothese kinds of questions.

V. ConclusionsMigratory songbirds are declining. Forest fragmentationin North America has lead to reduced suitable breedinghabitat, higher predation rates, and high rates of broodparasitism by brown-headed cowbirds. On top of this,the same individual birds often face degraded habitatswhen they arrive on their wintering grounds in the trop-ics. For migratory birds, the candle is burning at bothends.

Deforestation in the tropics is not just a problem for therelatively "exotic" birds and other animals that live in rainforests. Literally billions of our own birds are at stake,along with their effects on our own forest ecosystemshere in the temperate zone.

What can be done to stabilize migratory bird popula-tions? Two main approaches are essential. (1) Continuescientific research to monitor population levels, learnmore about the winter ecology of our migrants, anddetermine the most severe causes of the decline for dif-ferent species. (2) Preserve tropical habitats thatmigrants depend on. Here, conservation groups (like


Nest Predation in Forest Tracts and theDecline of Migratory SongbirdsDavid Wilcove conducted studies to test the hypothesisthat nest predation can be an important cause of thedecline of migratory songbird populations in small wood-lots. He placed artificial bird nests with fresh quail eggsin 11 woodlots of different sizes in Maryland andTennessee. He then visited each nest after seven days.Nests were considered preyed upon if one or more eggswere lost. On the ground near some of the nests, heplaced cardboard squares. These provided a place tocollect tracks from the animals that were preying on thenests. His results showed that the least amount of pre-dation occurred on nests placed in large forest tracts(those over 250 ha) and the most occurred on nests insuburban forest fragments (those under 15 ha). He con-cludes that there are several possible reasons for higherpredation rates in forest fragments. First, predators suchas blue jays, gray squirrels, raccoons and cats are com-monly associated with human development and there-fore are near to nests in the small, suburban woodlots.Also, small woodlots do not usually have larger preda-tors, such as bobcats and large hawks, that prey on theanimals that prey on these songbirds. Finally, the smallwoodlots have a relatively large percentage of edge,and this edge supports predacious species, such ascrows and grackles.

Wilcove, David S. 1985. Nest Predation in Forest Tracts and theDecline of Migratory Songbirds. Ecology 66(4):1211-1214.

Population Dynamics of BreedingNeotropical Migrants in a FragmentedIllinois LandscapeDuring the years 1985—1989, Scott Robinson conducteda study to determine nest success of Neotropical migrato-ry birds in small forest fragments in Illinois. He believedthat the songbirds might not be able to breed successfullyin the small, wooded areas. To test this hypothesis, heconducted bird censuses throughout three forest frag-ments, each under 70 hectares in size. The primary cen-susing method he used was spot-mapping, where hewalked through the forests during the morning hours(6:00 a.m. to 10:00 a.m.), stopped at predeterminedpoints, and marked birds seen or heard on a map. He

censussed each of the three forests this way at leastthree times each year, during the breeding season. Healso located nests in these forests and returned to themfrequently to see how many songbird eggs had been laid,how many cowbird eggs had been placed in the nestsand how many of the young hatched and survived. Whilelooking closely at these bird populations, he was able todetermine which male songbirds did not find mates. Hisfindings indicated that most of the Neotropical bird popu-lations declined over the five years. Of the open-cupshaped nests he located, 80 percent failed due to preda-tion, and 75 percent of all nests were parasitized by thebrown-headed cowbird. There was an average of 3.3cowbirds eggs in each parasitized nest. A high percent-age of several forest birds appeared to remain unmatedthrough the breeding season. Because populations ofthese songbirds cannot increase in these forests due tothe frequency of predation and parasitism, Robinson con-cludes that these small forest fragments might be popula-tion "traps" for these birds. They are traps because theoffspring of songbirds that breed in larger forests mightcome to these smaller fragments to breed, yet not be suc-cessful due to parasitism and predation.

Robinson, Scott K. 1992. Population Dynamics of BreedingNeotropical Migrants in a Fragmented Illinois Landscape. In John M.Hagan III and David W. Johnston (eds.) Ecology and Conservation ofNeotropical Migrant Landbirds. Symposium proceedings fromManomet Bird Observatory, 6-9 December 1989. pp. 408-418.

Are Declines in North AmericanInsectivorous Songbirds Due to Causes onthe Breeding Range?An enormous amount of bird census data has been col-lected since 1966 by the North American Breeding BirdSurvey (BBS). The BBS is a roadside count of birdsconducted during the breeding season by volunteers.Volunteers are assigned a 24.5 mile route on which theystop every half mile to record birds seen and heard in athree minute period. The data collected are submitted tothe U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, where they areentered into a computer database.

The researchers in this study analyzed the data collect-ed from the BBS over the years to determine bird popu-lation trends. They found that some Neotropical migrato-

Appendix D

Research Article Summaries


ry bird populations had decreased, and these declinesmay be attributed primarily to predation on the breedinggrounds. The researchers are careful to note that justbecause they found a connection between bird popula-tion declines and predation, this does not prove that pre-dation causes the declines. Yet the findings do stronglysupport this hypothesis and the researchers recommendthat more attention is devoted to the breeding habitats inorder to avoid further decreases.

Bohning-Gaese, Katrin, Mark L. Taper and James H. Brown. 1993. AreDeclines in North American Insectivorous Songbirds Due to Causeson the Breeding Range? Conservation Biology 7(1):76-86.

Estimating the Viability of Ovenbirdand Kentucky Warbler Populations inForest FragmentsGibbs and Faaborg make the point that researchersmust be careful when drawing conclusions about birdpopulation success based solely on singing bird counts.In this research, they studied two bird populations,ovenbirds and Kentucky warblers, in both forest frag-ments (under 150 ha) and large forest tracts (over 500ha) in 1988. During the breeding season, they surveyedthese forest areas by listening for singing birds for three

hours each morning at daybreak. After locating eachsinging male, they followed it continuously for 90 min-utes and carefully observed for evidence of successfulpairing with a female. Seeing the male interact with afemale, carrying nesting material or feeding young wereconsidered evidence of successful pairing.Approximately three-fourths of male ovenbirds wereunpaired on forest fragments, while only one-fourth ofmale ovenbirds were unpaired in larger forest tracts. ForKentucky warblers, no difference in proportions of pairedmales was found between the large and small tracts.The forest fragments examined in this study appearedto support less successful populations of ovenbirds dur-ing 1988 than the large forest tracts. One important find-ing of this study is that bird censuses that use onlysinging males to count the number of birds present maynot adequately represent the nesting success for all birdspecies equally. In this study, counting singing ovenbirdmales was not an accurate way to determine whether ornot the birds were successfully breeding. To determinewhether the small forest fragments were actually sup-porting breeding bird populations, the researchers need-ed to study whether or not the males were paired.

Gibbs, James P. and John Faaborg. 1990. Estimating the Viability ofOvenbird and Kentucky Warbler Populations in Forest Fragments.


Forest Fast Facts

SUMMARYn total forest area is now increasing in Illinoisn timber volume increased 40 percent between 1962and 1985

n oak-hickory forests are declining and not beingregenerated – maples are replacing them

n most Illinois forests are associated with streamsn more than 75 percent of the wildlife habitat in Illinoisis found in the forests

FOREST AREAn in 1820, 13.8 million acres of forestn 4.3 million acres of the 1820 area was left in 1998 andall except 11,600 acres are considered secondary

n Illinois ranks 49th in the percentage of its landremaining in its original vegetation type

n lowest estimate of forest area in the state was 3.02million acres by Telford in 1924

n other estimates include the following: 4.0 millionacres in 1948; 4.04 million acres in 1962; 4.26 mil-lion acres in 1985

n forest area increased 10 percent from 1962-85because of reduced cattle production and conver-sion of hayland and pastures to secondary forests

n from 1962-85 only the south-central region lost for-est area; specific counties in this region which lostforest area are Bond, Clark, Clinton, Fayette,Franklin, Gallatin, Hamilton, Jasper, Lawrence,Marion, Montgomery, Perry, Richland, Shelby, St.Clair, Lawrence and Wayne

n counties in other regions losing more than 5,000acres from 1962-85 were Alexander, Massac,Greene and Lake

OWNERSHIP PATTERNS OF ILLINOISFORESTSn 90 percent of the commercial forests is in privateownership while the remaining 10 percent is publiclyowned

n Illinois has approximately 169,073 private forestlandowners, each owning an average of 21.5 acres

FOREST PLANT DIVERSITY n more than 250 tree species recorded (native andintroduced)

n the most common tree type in commercial forestswas the slippery elm; white oaks, red oaks, hicko-ries, hard maples and soft maples were also veryabundant; maples are showing the greatest gains

n total volume of growing stock in 1985 was 4.8 billioncubic feet, 40 percent greater than the 3.4 billioncubic feet reported for 1962; 5.94 billion cubic feetwere reported in 1998

n sawtimber species accounting for the greatest per-centages harvested were oaks, soft maple, cotton-wood and aspen, ashes, hickory and hard maple

n Illinois ranks fifth in the nation in demand for woodbut 32nd in the production of wood

n nearly 2 million cords of wood a year of firewood areharvested in Illinois, accounting for almost 43 per-cent of the trees harvested (75 percent of the fire-wood is taken from dead trees)

n biomass and annual harvest have increased duringthe past 23 years while annual growth hasdecreased – mortality has increased mainly due toinsects and pathogens

TRENDS IN FOREST BIRDSn Neotropical migrants formerly accounted for morethan 70 percent of the breeding birds in Illinois; now

Appendix E

Forest Resources of IllinoisFROM: The Changing Illinois Environment: Critical Trends Technical Report of the Critical Trends Assessment Project.Volume 3: Ecological Resources, Illinois Department of Natural Resources and the Nature of Illinois Foundation; andForest Resources of Illinois 2002, Illinois Forestry Development Council and the Department of Natural Resources andEnvironmental Science, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.


they account for less than 50 percent; based on twostudies in east-central Illinois (by Kendeigh andupdated in 1992 by Brawn), small woodlots mayharbor only 25 percent Neotropical migrants

n few, if any, species were lost in the 20th century, butif trends continue one-third to one-half the typicalforest species may be lost to extinction

FOREST STRESSORSn pollution—ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide inparticular

n deforestation— long-term effect of past clear-cuttingn fragmentation—10,121 forested parcels of 40 ormore acres in Illinois in 1980---about 44 percent ofthe parcels were of 100 acres or less


Appendix FUnited States Forest Cover

from 1620 to 1990

1620

1850

1920

1990Because each dot represents 25,000acres, smaller areas of forest cover arenot represented.


Appendix G

Scientific Inquiry Concept1) Scientific inquiry, including posing problems, solvingproblems and persuasion, can be used for thestudy, management and conservation of bird popu-lations and forest ecosystems.

ACTIVITIES: Buddy Banding, DesigningResearchers

Forest Ecology Concepts1) Forests are complex ecosystems. ACTIVITIES: Defining a Forest, Intelligent Tinkering2) People and some birds depend on forests for theirneeds.

ACTIVITIES: The Balancing Act, Territory Tango,Town Meeting

Bird Ecology Concepts1) Birds are intrinsically valuable. ACTIVITIES: Interview a Bird, If There Were NoBirds, Avian Olympics

2) Birds are part of forest ecosystems. ACTIVITIES: Interview a Bird, The Balancing Act,Intelligent Tinkering

3) Bird populations are affected by human impact ontheir habitat.

ACTIVITIES: Interview a Bird, Territory Tango,Cowbird Capers, Migration Migraines

4) Some birds migrate to meet their habitat needs. ACTIVITIES: Interview a Bird, A Round Trip Ticket,The Balancing Act, Avian Olympics, MigrationMigraines, Migrateering

Interconnectedness Concepts1) People in Central America and North America havesimilar needs.

ACTIVITIES: Cultural Exchange2) Migratory birds depend on habitat in CentralAmerica, the Midwest and along flyways.

ACTIVITIES: Interview a Bird, A Round Trip Ticket,Avian Olympics, Migration Migraines

3) Human actions that impact the forest environmenthave a global effect.

ACTIVITIES: Tell the World, Migration Migraines

Management Option Concepts 1) People alter and manage forests to accommodatetheir wants and needs.

ACTIVITIES: Town Meeting2) Each forest management option may limit other for-est uses.

ACTIVITIES: Territory Tango, Town Meeting3) Human use and management of forests affect birdpopulations.

ACTIVITIES: Interview a Bird, Cowbird Capers,Territory Tango, Habitat Squeeze

Conservation Concept1) People can act to help conserve Neotropical migra-tory forest birds and their homes.

ACTIVITIES: Cultural Exchange, Tell the World,Town Meeting

Activities by Concept


English Language ArtsBalancing Act, The Cultural Exchange Defining a Forest Designing Researchers Habitat Squeeze If There Were No Birds... Interview a Bird Tell the World Town Meeting

MathematicsAvian Olympics Buddy Banding Migration Migraines Round Trip Ticket, A

ScienceAvian Olympics Balancing Act, The Cowbird Capers Intelligent Tinkering Interview a Bird Migration Migraines Territory Tango Town Meeting

Physical Development and HealthMigrateering

Foreign LanguagesRound Trip Ticket, A

Appendix H

Activities by Subject


Appendix I

1. Participate in International Migratory Bird Day (thesecond Saturday in May) to educate others on theissue.

2. Write to state and national elected representatives tovoice your concern over the plight of migratory birds.

3. Contact local environmental organizations or chap-ters of national organizations, such as the AudubonSociety or Society for Ornithology to find out whatthey are doing about this issue. Or contact Partnersin Flight, a federal interagency program workingtowards Neotropical migratory bird conservation(http://www.partnersinflight.org).

4. Contact local representatives and parks personnelto learn about local land-use issues. Find out howyou can learn about important local hearings, to pro-vide public input on land-use decisions. To get thenames of your representatives, call the city or townclerk's office.

5. Conduct a school or district-wide “Avian OlympicsDay” to educate others in your school about birds.

6. Take field trips to learn bird identification and tocontribute observations about bird populations to

bird censuses or the Christmas Bird Count. Contactyour local Illinois Department of Natural Resourcesoffice for information on bird censuses.

7. Continue writing letters to your cultural exchangeclass and educate people in Latin America aboutthis issue.

8. Plant native trees in appropriate places to encour-age bird habitat.

9. Take steps to reduce, reuse and recycle paper inyour class or school. Start a paper recycling systemin your class or school.

10. Plant a butterfly garden to provide habitat that sup-ports insects that birds feed on.

11. Volunteer at a bird-banding station.12. Raise money to buy an acre of rain forest or to

make a donation toward acquisition of local land.13. Educate neighbors about the dangers feral cats

pose for birds.14. Leave snags and fallen trees in woodlots to provide

habitat for cavity-nesting birds.

Action Projects

Following are some practical ideas to get your students involved in action projects to help conserve Neotropicalmigratory bird populations.

http://www.partnersinflight.org


Chicago WildernessEducation and Communication Team

Chicago312-580-2137

http://www.chicagowilderness.orgChicago Wilderness is a regional nature reserve of glob-ally significant rare natural communities in an areaencompassing southeastern Wisconsin, the six-countyChicago region and northwestern Indiana. ChicagoWilderness is also a partnership of public and privateorganizations whose goals are to protect, restore andmanage these lands. The Education andCommunication Team of Chicago Wilderness works toincrease and diversify public participation in and theunderstanding of the region’s biodiversity by developingcollaborative education programs, events and profes-sional development opportunities. They disseminateexisting and newly developed educational materials/pro-grams/information through training and appropriatechannels. Educators may access many biodiversityteaching tools through Chicago Wilderness.

Illinois Department of Natural Resources Division of Education

One Natural Resources WaySpringfield, IL 62702-1271

217-524-4126http://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education

[email protected] Illinois Department of Natural Resources’ Division ofEducation is responsible for the development, trainingand dissemination of educational programs and events,including Illinois ENTICE (Environment and NatureTraining Institute for Conservation Education). TheDivision of Education develops and distributes a varietyof environmental education materials. For monthlyupdates on new materials and scheduled workshops,visit http://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceShorebird Sister Schools Program

National Conservation Training Center 698 Conservation Way

Shepherdstown, WV 25443304-876-7479

http://www.fws.gov/sssp/Arctic nesting shorebirds migrate each year, from theirwintering grounds in Latin America, Hawaii, Japan andAustralia to their nesting grounds in Alaska, Russia andthe Canadian Arctic. Students are connected along theflyways by sharing their observations of shorebirds,habitat and their own cultures with other students.Students are linked to conservation by opportunities toask biologists questions, follow research projects andcollect data.

Appendix J

Resources

The following organizations and items can provide you with more information and educational materials regardingbiodiversity, forests, birds and other topics related to One Bird—Two Habitats.

http://www.fws.gov/sssp/



http://www.chicagowilderness.org


Appendix K

DECLINING NEOTROPICAL MIGRANTPOPULATIONS – Popular LiteratureFitzpatrick, John W. 1991. Northern Birds at Home inthe Tropics. Natural History 91:40-7.

Greenwood, J. D. 1990. What the Little Birds Tell Us.Nature 343:22-3.

Grimshaw, Roger P. 1982. The Importance of TropicalWintering Areas to Prairie Bird Populations. Blue Jay40(2):120-4.

Hutto, Richard L. 1988. Is Tropical DeforestationResponsible for the Reported Declines in NeotropicalMigrant Populations? American Birds 42(3):375-9.

Mayfield, Harold. 1977. Brown-headed Cowbird: Agentof Extermination? American Birds 31(2):107-13.

Morton, E. S. and R. Greenberg. 1989. The Outlook forMigratory Songbirds: "Future Shock" For Birders.American Birds 43:178-83.

Myers, J.P., R. I. G. Morrison, Paolo Z. Antas, Brian A.Harrington, Thomas E. Lovejoy, Michael Sallaberry,Stanley E. Senner, and Arturo Tarak. 1987.Conservation Strategy for Migratory Species. AmericanScientist 75(Jan-Feb):19-26.

Terborgh, John. 1989. Where Have All the Birds Gone?Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.207 pp.

Wilcove, David S., and R. F. Whitcomb. 1983. GoneWith the Trees. Natural History 92:82-91.

Wille, Chris. 1990. Mystery of the Missing Migrants.Audubon 92(3):80-5.

MIGRATIONAckerman, Jennifer. 1992. Tracking a River of Birds.Nature Conservancy Mar-Apr:23-7.

Fisher, Allan C., Jr. 1979. Mysteries of Bird Migration.National Geographic 156(2):154-93.

Lincoln, Frederick C. 1935. (Revised 1979 by Steven R.Peterson). Migration of Birds. U.S. Department of theInterior, Fish & Wildlife Service. Circular 16. 119 pp.

BIRD-WATCHINGCraven, Scott R. 1991. Birding and Children. ThePassenger Pigeon 53(3):255-9.

TROPICAL FORESTSCubberly, Pamela S. 1988. Vanishing Rain Forests.Washington, D.C.: World Wildlife Fund. 28 pp.

Head, Suzanne, and Robert Heinzman, eds. 1990.Lessons of the Rainforest. San Francisco: Sierra ClubBooks. 275 pp.

Global Tomorrow Coalition. 1990. Tropical Forests. pp.116-33 in The Global Ecology Handbook. Boston,Massachusetts: Beacon Press.

COOPERATIVE LEARNINGJohnson, D. W., et al. 1991. Cooperation in theClassroom. Interaction Book Company. Edina,Minnesota.

Johnson, D. W., et al. 1990. Circles of Learning.Interaction Book Company. Edina, Minnesota.

DECLINING STATUS OF NEOTROPICALMIGRANTS – Scientific LiteratureAlerstam, Thomas. 1990. Bird Migration. New York:Cambridge University Press. 420 pp.

Ambuel, Bruce and Stanley A. Temple. 1982. SongbirdPopulations in Southern Wisconsin Forests: 1954 and1979. Journal of Field Ornithology 53(2):149-58.

Ambuel, Bruce and Stanley A. Temple. 1983. Area-Dependent Changes in the Bird Communities andVegetation of Southern Wisconsin rests. Ecology64(5):1057-68.

Bibliography


Andrén, Henrik and Per Angelstam. 1988. ElevatedPredation Rates as an Edge Effect in Habitat Islands:Experimental Evidence. Ecology 69(2):544-7.

Askins, Robert A., James F. Lynch, and RussellGreenberg. 1990. Population Declines in Migratory Birdsin Eastern North America. Current Ornithology 7:1-57.

Askins, Robert A., M. J. Philbrick, and D. S. Sugeno.1987. Relationship Between the Regional Abundance ofForest and the Composition of Forest Bird Communities.Biological Conservation 39:129-152.

Brittingham, Margaret Clark, and Stanley A. Temple.1983. Have Cowbirds Caused Forest Songbirds toDecline? BioScience 33(1)31-5.

Cox, George W. 1985. The Evolution of Avian MigrationSystems Between Temperate and Tropical Regions ofthe New World. American Naturalist 126(4):451-74.

Finch, Deborah M. 1991. Population Ecology, HabitatRequirements, and Conservation of NeotropicalMigratory Birds. USDA, U.S. Forest Service. GeneralTechnical Report RM-205.

Graber, R. R., and J. W. Graber. 1963. A ComparativeStudy of Bird Populations in Illinois: 1906-1909 and1956-1958. Bulletin of the Illinois Natural History Survey28:383-528.

Hagan, John M., and David W. Johnston (eds). 1992.Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical MigrantLandbirds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian InstitutionPress.

Howe, Robert W. and G. Jones. 1977. Avian Utilizationof Small Woodlots in Dane County, Wisconsin.Passenger Pigeon 39:313-9.

Hutto, Richard L. 1989. The Effect of Habitat Alterationon Migratory Land Birds in a West Mexican TropicalDeciduous Forest: A Conservation Perspective.Conservation Biology 3(2):138-48.

Loiselle, Bette A. 1987. Migrant Abundance in a CostaRican Lowland Forest Canopy. Journal of TropicalEcology (3):163-8.

Lovejoy, Thomas E. 1983. Tropical Deforestation andNorth American Migrant Birds. Bird Conservation 1:126-8.

Southern, W. E., and L. K. Southern. 1980. A Summaryof the Incidence of Cowbird Parasitism in NorthernMichigan from 1911-1978. Jack Pine Warbler 58:77-84.

Stewart, P. A. 1987. Decline in Numbers of WoodWarblers in Spring and Autumn Migrations ThroughOhio. North American Bird Bander 12:58-60.

Thompson, Frank R., William D. Dijak, Thomas G.Kulowiec, and David A. Hamilton. 1992. Breeding BirdPopulations in Missouri Ozark Forests With and WithoutClearcutting. Journal of Wildlife Management 56(1):23-30.

White, Robin P. 1990. Where Do Wisconsin'sNeotropical Migrants Spend the Winter? PassengerPigeon 52(2):127-37.

Wilcove, David S. 1985. Nest Predation in Forest Tractsand the Decline of Migratory Songbirds. Ecology66(4):1211-4.


Appendix L

ABIOTIC The nonliving components of the environment,such as oxygen and soil.

ADAPTATION The evolutionary process by which aspecies adjusts to its environment, for example: 1)flight adaptations include hollow or partially hollowbones, feathers, body shape and wings; 2) migration toNorth America to find better nesting territory and returnto warmer climates when northern winters make foodscarce; and 3) songbirds developing behaviors (build-ing a new nest bottom over a brown-headed cowbirdegg or throwing cowbird eggs from their nests) inresponse to pressures from other bird species toincrease the reproductive success of the songbirds.

AVIAN A term that refers to or relates to birds.BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (BIODIVERSITY) The vari-ety of life; the spectrum of life forms and the ecologi-cal processes that support and sustain them. Thisunit describes three levels of biodiversity: speciesdiversity; genetic diversity; and ecosystem diversity.

BIRD BANDING A research technique in which a small,aluminum band is attached to a bird's leg. If the birdis captured again or found dead, and the band num-ber is reported to the responsible federal agency, thebander and other researchers can learn about aviantraits such as movements and longevity.

BREEDING HABITAT The local environment where ananimal carries out reproductive activities. For exam-ple, the ovenbird's breeding habitat is the forest floor.

BROMELIAD A tropical plant in the pineapple familythat often grows on the trunks and branches of treesin the rain forest. Bromeliads have adapted to life offthe ground by collecting raindrops in funnels at thebase of their spiny leaves.

BROOD PARASITISM Behavior characterized by birdslaying their eggs in the nests of other birds (the hostspecies). The parasite's young are raised by the hostspecies.

CANOPY The upper layer of the forest formed by theleaves and branches of trees.

CARRYING CAPACITY The population that a givenarea, such as a forest, will support without undergoingdeterioration.

COMMUNITY An assemblage of species living togetherin a particular area, at a particular time, in a pre-scribed habitat.

COMPOSITION The makeup of an ecological unit interms of the organisms or groups of organisms pres-ent in an area.

CONSENSUS A decision reached by mutual accept-ance of persons involved.

CONSERVATION The use of resources in a way whichassures their continuing availability for future genera-tions; the wise use of natural resources.

COWBIRD A parasitic bird that lays its eggs in othersongbirds’ nests.

DATA Units of information that are collected for a spe-cific purpose.

DRY SEASON A season in the tropics characterized bylow rainfall and the loss of leaves on deciduous trees.

ECOSYSTEM An interacting system of the biotic com-munity and its abiotic environment. Ecosystems arecharacterized by nutrient cycling and energy flowbetween trophic levels (producers, consumers anddecomposers).

EDGE EFFECT The ecological impacts resulting fromthe meeting of two distinctly different habitats.

EMERGENT LAYER A layer of the forest consisting oftrees that protrude above the canopy layer.

ENVIRONMENT Conditions in an area influenced bythe climate, soil, topography and biotic components.

FAT LOADING Process by which a bird builds up fatreserves prior to migration.

FLYWAY Flight routes established by migratory birdsbetween their wintering grounds and their breedinggrounds.

FOREST INTERIOR SPECIES Those species whoseoptimum habitat is deep in the forest, where condi-tions are not influenced by edge effects.

FOREST TYPE Tree species which commonly growtogether because of their similar environmentalrequirements and tolerances.

Glossary


FRAGMENTATION The division of large, continuoustracts of habitat into smaller areas.

GENE POOL The various genes present in a population.GENETIC DIVERSITY The variety of genetic materialcarried by different populations.

HABITAT The place where an organism lives and itssurrounding environment, including the biotic and abi-otic components. A habitat provides the organismwith food, water, shelter and space in a suitablearrangement.

INDIGO BUNTING A Neotropical migratory bird thatuses forest edge habitat for its breeding ground.

INTERCONNECTED The state of being connected oneto the other.

MAGNETIC FIELD A region subject to the influence ofmagnetism.

MIGRATION Movement of a species from one place toanother, often following a change of seasons.

MIGRATORY RESTLESSNESS A change in behavior,described as "frantic,” that demonstrates the desire tomigrate. The behavior has been observed in experi-mental settings by confined birds during the time thebirds should be migrating.

NEOTROPICS The area of the Americas situatedbetween the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.

NEOTROPICAL MIGRATORY BIRD A bird whichmoves seasonally between temperate regions of theAmericas, where it spends its breeding time, andtropical areas, where it spends the months when win-ter occurs in the north.

NUTRIENT CYCLING The flow of nutrients through theecosystem.

ORIENTEERING The process of finding direction byusing a compass.

OVENBIRD A Neotropical migratory forest bird thatbreeds in northern North America and spends wintersin the tropics. Its name probably comes from theoven-shaped nest it builds on the forest floor.

POPULATION The number of members of a particularspecies in a given area.

PRESERVATION The maintenance of a natural ecosys-tem or environment undisturbed by the influence oractivities of humans.

RENEWABLE RESOURCE These living resources canrenew themselves naturally or through sound man-agement practices, so as to not deplete their supplyin the long run.

SITE The place where something is located.STRUCTURE The pattern or physical arrangement ofan area, such as a forest.

SUSTAINABILITY The process of managing ecosys-tems to meet the needs of present human popula-tions without interruption, weakening or loss of theresource base for future generations.

SUSTAINABLE USE Use of natural resources in amanner that does not eliminate or degrade them orotherwise diminish their usefulness for future genera-tions.

TEMPERATE The region of the earth that lies betweenthe tropical and polar regions.

TERRITORY The concept of "ownership" of, or domi-nance over a unit of habitat; an area used by an ani-mal for breeding and/or feeding, and which it defendsagainst others.

TROPICAL The area of the world that lies between theTropics of Cancer and Capricorn.

UNDERSTORY The plant layer growing under thecanopy of a forest that includes small trees, shrubsand herbs.

WET SEASON A season in the tropics characterized byabundant rainfall.

WINTER HABITAT The local environment where ananimal spends the winter. For example, the oven-bird's winter habitat includes the forests of theNeotropics.

Division of EducationOne Natural Resources Way

Springfield, IL 62702

[email protected]://www.dnr.illinois.gov

http://www.dnr.illinois.gov
