choosing an appropriate method of data collection...choosing an appropriate method of data...
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Choosing an appropriatemethod of data collectionIn this paper Dympna Casey gives a personal accountof the factors affecting her selection of methods of datacollection for a case study examining nurses' health pro-moting practices in the context of an acute care setting
'^ >• non-participant observation0 > interviewing•^ > methods of data collection
> health promotion
IntroductionConducting real-world research, in particular for the novice researcher, is not
easy (Casey 2004). Choices have to be made concerning each stage of the
process, all of which are governed by the research question and/or aims of the
study. In making these choices researchers resort to textbooks as well as research
studies. Both sources are helpful, however, the latter may sometimes be more
helpful in terms of describing the practicalities of conducting research in the
context of real-life settings rather than just describing an abstract reality.
Capturing the subjective interactions between nurses and patients was an
important part of my study. Therefore the interpretivlst paradigm was used, as
the focus was on the meaning of experiences and behaviours, which are context
dependent. The use of multiple data collection methods, provide a more 'con-
vincing and accurate' case study (Yin 1994). In my case study 'within methods'
triangulation involving the use of both observations and interviews, (methods
of data collection from the same methodology) were used. This paper describes
the rationale and issues considered in selecting the most appropriate methods
of data collection as well as the researcher's account of her experience of using
these methods in undertaking a piece of research.
NURSERESEARCHER 2006, 13, 3 75
The complete participant, where the researcher attempts to hide his or her trueidentity and role as researcher.The participant as observer, here participants are aware of the researcher's role andthe research, and the researcher is a full participant.The observer as participant, here no long-term relationship is established. Theobserver doesn't participate in the work and is only a participant in the sense ofbeing in the setting.The complete observer where there is no participation.
Observations as a method of data collectionObservations as a method of data collection permit the identification of what
is occurring in a given context, who is involved and when and where things
are happening (Jorgensen 1989). This method was most appropriate for my
study as the aim was to obtain an understanding of the health promotion
practices undertaken by nurses in the context of their daily practice.
Role of observerCold (1958) identifies four modes of observation outlined in Table 1. Some
of these roles overlap, for example observer as participant and complete
observer (Holloway and Wheeler 2002). Hammersley and Atkinson (1995)
suggest that there is no single theoretical typology of participation, rather
the role of the researcher in field research varies between complete observer,
(non-participation), and complete participant. They question the value of
distinguishing between participant as observer and observer as participant.
In practice the extent of participation is governed by the nature of the setting
and the research question (Mays and Pope 1995).
Many researchers have utilised the role of non-participant observer to exam-
ine actions, interactions and exchanges in a variety of hospital and nursing con-
texts (Table 2). These studies highlight the suitability of observations as a means
of collecting data within nursing. Prior to making a final decision as to using
this method I undertook a review of research text books and research studies to
determine the advantages and disadvantages of the method.
Advantages and disadvantages of observations
One of the main advantages of observations is that it allows the collection of
76 NURSEKESEaRCHER 2006, 13, 3
information on a wide range of activities including how participants perform
and how people act and interact (Polgar and Thomas 1991, Lobiando-Wood
and Haber 1998, Patton 2002, Holloway and Wheeler 2002). Problems
identified with unstructured observations include: yielding a lot of data,
which makes analysis more time consuming; and selectivity bias may arise
whereby the researcher may focus only on aspects of the phenomena that are
of personal interest (Pretzlik 1994, Polit et al 2001, Patton 2002). There are
also potential problems from the Rosenthal phenomenon, when the research-
er's attitudes, emotions and personal interest influence the outcome (Polgar
and Thomas 1991, Bucknall 2000). It must be noted that these arguments are
also equally valid for other methods of data collection. Maintaining a reflec-
tive account during my study helped to reduce these problems.
Other difficulties with observational methods include the Hawthorne effect,
where research participants may alter their behaviour as a result of being
observed. Alder and Alder (1987) suggest that it is not possible to eliminate
observer effect completely. However the researcher can include steps that will
reduce or diminish it. For example, getting to know the environment and allow-
ing the ward staff become familiar with my presence. I also ensured that I spent
enough time (prolonged engagement) on the ward as indicated by the fact that
no new issues were emerging from the data (data saturation).
Mulhall (2003) warns that most 'professionals are too busy to maintain
behaviour that is radically different from normal'. While Patton (1990) states
that the observer effect is overemphasised as participants frequently forget the
researcher's presence. Another difficulty is the halo effect (Polit and Tatano
Beck 2004), where the researcher's positive impression ofa participant might
result in recording the individual's activities in a positive way. The converse
is also possible. In my study non-participant observation was selected as this
permitted me to focus on recording at first hand the interartions between
nurses and patients, and to not be distracted by having to participate in the
work. Continuous self-monitoring, and ensuring that both methodological and
interpretive rigour was maintained, helped reduce potential problems.
Tvpes of observations
In choosing observations as a method of data collection researchers may
NURSERESEAKCHER 2006, 13, 3 77
Author Aim of the study
Booth et al To examine the effects of a stroke(2005) rehabilitation education programme
for nurses.
Bucknali (2000) To observe and describe the decisionmaking activities of critical care nurseswithin the natural clinical settings.
Cox and To discover how clinically effectiveAhluwalin (2000) nursing care is fostered among
clinical nurse specialists and nursepractitioners.
Dowswell et al To examine the positioning, handling,(2000) and mobilisation of stroke patients pre
and post an educational programme.
Forster et al To assess the effects of a(1999) physiotherapist led stroke training
programme for nurses working in arehabilitation ward.
Gott and O'Brien To examine nurses' knowledge and(1990) perspectives of health promotion and
patients perspectives.
Hertzberg and To identify and describe obstacles to aEkman (2000) well functioning relationship between
staff and relatives.
Henderson To examine factors relevant to patient(1997) participation from the patients' andHenderson nurses' perspectives.(2003) To explore and describe nurses' and
patients' views about partnership.
Latter (1994) To examine nurses' perceptions andMacleod Clark et practices of health education anda/(1992) health promotion.
Latter et al To evaluate educational preparation for(2000) health education roles in practice, in
relation to medication education.
Lundgren and To investigate the allocation of nursingSegesten (2001) time and organisation of care, after
the introduction of a patient focusedphilosophy and ward staff change, i.e.all qualified registered nurses.
Observer role
Non participant
Non participant
Non participant
Non participant
Non participant
Non participant
Non participant
Participant statedbut resembles nonparticipant
Non participant
Non participantobservations ofteaching sessions
Non participant
78 NURSERESEARCHER 2006, 13, 3
McGarvey et al To investigate factors influencing role(1999) performance of nurses working in the
operating department.
McCrea ef al To examine the influence of the(1998) midwife's approach on the care of
women, regarding pain relief duringlabour.
Neary (2000) To investigate nursing practicein relation to assessing clinicalcompetence of nursing students, andthe support they receive during nurseeducation programmes.
Rosalind and To explore the quantity and contentWright (1999) of verbal communication between
critical care nurses and unconscious, orsedated patients.
Twinn and Diana, To explore nurses' practice of health(1997) education in acute care.
Walker and To produce a set of indicators forDewar (2001) good practice that would facilitate
the involvement of carers in decisionmaking.
Woodward To explore the interpretations and(2000) values midwives and nurses attach to
the concept of caring, and how theseare manifest in the clinical setting.
Younger and To measure quality and theGeoffrey (2000) environment of care.
Hewison (1995) To examine the way nurses uselanguage and the effect this has onpatients.
Burden (1998) To observe the methods women useto maintain or preserve their privacywithin the ward environment.
Whyte and To examine the type of health relatedWatson (1998) information given to patients by
diploma nurses.
Zeit (2005) To describe what constitutes postoperative nursing monitoring in theinitial 24 hour period.
Non participant
Non participant
Non participant
Non participant
Non participant
Non participant
Non participant
Non participant
Participant observation- Observer asparticipant
Participant observation
Nurses wore themicrophones to collectthe data
Non participant
NURSERESEARCMER 2006, 13, 3 79
use either structured or unstructured observations (Polit and Tatano Beck
2004). The aim of structured observations is to quantify an explicit feature of
the phenomenon under observation. In stmctured observations, the aspect of
the phenomenon to be examined is decided in advance into predefined obser-
vational categories (Polit et ai 2001. Polit and Tatano Beck 2004). Structured
observations are appropriate for large-scale studies providing measurable quan-
tifiable data and are highly reliable (Pretzlik 1994). They involve collecting the
data in a systematic manner where '...the role of the observer is essentially that
of a follower of instmctions-that is the instructions laid down in the structured
observational schedule' (Pretzlik 1994). Although a standardised checklist is
beneficial, it can lead to uncategorisable activities being ignored. An altemative
observational tool is the unstructured approach.
Unstructured observations utilise an inductive approach and may be
described as qualitative observations. Unstructured observations are governed
by the paradigm that acknowledges the importance of context and the co-con-
struction of knowledge between researcher and 'researched' (Mulhall 2003).
These observations favour an interpretivist approach. The researcher observing
the phenomena of interest does not use predefined categories, but allows the
categories to emerge from the collected data (Polit et al 1995). Unstruaured
observations allow for more creativity and for the complexity of the situation
to be considered (Pretzlik 1994, Polit et al 2001). They allow the researcher to
see '...what there is to see without the blinders of hypothesis...' (Patton 2002).
The ultimate aim of unstructured observations is to arrive at a comprehensive
understanding of the phenomena under study.
Within nursing, unstructured observations are used less frequently (Mulhall
2003). In most of the literature I reviewed it was difficult to identify whether
researchers employed structured or unstructured observation tools. Reid (1991)
explicitly stated that an attempt was made to create an observational schedule,
but it was found to be too restrictive. However, most studies did not state the
type of observational tool employed (Hewison 1995, West 1996, Smith 1996,
Whyte and Watson 1998, Martens 1998, McCrea et al 1998, Offredy 1998,
Burden 1998, Jordan et ai 1999, Rosalind and Wright 1999. Cox and Ahluwalia
2000, Woodward 2000, Hertzberg and Ekman 2000, Lundgren and Segesten
2001, Bucknall 2000, Wallis et al 2001, Wikstrom and Larsson 2003).
80 NURSEKESE&KCHEK 2006, 13, 3
Molar and molecular categories
Observational tools can be viewed along a continuum, completely structured
at one end and completely unstructured at the other (Polit and Tatano Beck
2004). The degree of structure of the observational categories within any
observational tool is described as molar and molecular (Lobo 1992, Polit and
Tatano Beck 2004). Unstructured molar categories are broad based where the
category is not well-defined in detail, this increases the likelihood of observer
error. In contrast molecular categories are detailed and precise and allow for
more accurate recording. The more molecular categories used in the observa-
tional tool, the more structured the approach. However, reducing observations
to concrete and specific components may cause the researcher to ignore how
other smaller components contribute to the phenomenon under investigation
(Polit et al 2001, Polit and Tatano Beck 2004). The research question and the
preference of the researcher govem ones choice in using molar or molecular
categories (Pretzlik, 1994, Polit eta/2001).
In my study an unstructured observational tool with molar categories was
used. This was chosen on the basis that it is difficult to delineate distinct health
promotion activities in nursing practice (Delaney 1994) as the concepts under-
pinning health promotion are broad based and complex (Maben and Macleod
Clark 1995. Whitehead 2004). Hence the suitability of molar categories.
However, this did yield a lot of data, making analysis time-consuming.
Observational sampling
Observational data seeks to obtain a representative example of the interactions
or behaviours being examined without observing an entire experience. The two
main methods of achieving this are time sampling and event sampling (Polit et al
2001, Polit and Tatano Beck 2004). Time sampling is where a certain time peri-
od is selected during which the observational data is collected. The time periods
may be randomly or systematically selected. Event sampling is where data is
collected on a particular interaction or event. Event sampling thus requires prior
knowledge of the specified event This type of sampling is also most useful if the
event is infrequent as it may be missed if time sampling were used.
The majority of studies I reviewed employed time sampling (Table 3) to obtain
a representative sample of the interactions or behaviours being observed. Only
NURSERESEARCHER 2006, 13, 3 81
Reid (1991) Forster eta/(1999)
Hewison (1995) Pound et a/ (1999)
West (1995) Cox and Ahluwalia (2000)
Routasalo(1996) Davies et a/(2000)
Burden (1998) Dowswell et ai (2000)
While et a/ (1998) Woodward (2000)
Whyte and Watson (1998) Younger and Geoffrey (2000)
Holyoake (1998) Lundgren and Segesten (2001)
Fitzpatrick et al (1999) Booth et ai (2001)
Rosalind and Wright (1999) Wallis eta/(2001)
Waters and Easton (1999) Wellard et al (2003)
a few studies appeared to focus on a specific event (Roach et al 1996, McCrea
et al 1998, Offredy 1998, Bucknall 2000, Walker and Dewar 2001, Zeitz 2005),
The length of each time sampling event described in the studies reviewed was
also diverse. Some studies clearly indicated the duration of each observational
period and this ranged from two to nine hours (Table 4). However, others were
less explicit (Roach et a/1996, Routasalo 1996, Forster et al 1999, Pound et at
1999, Hertzberg and Ekman 2000), giving either the total number of hours or
episodes of observational data collected. Other studies only indicated either the
type of shift during which data was collected, or the length of time during which
data was collected (Reid 1991, Smith 1996. Anderson 1997, Wigens 1997,
Taylor 1997, Burden 1998, Martens 1998, Offredy 1998, Whyte and Watson
1998, Jordan et al 1999, Walker and Dewar 2001, Lundgren and Segesten
2001, Wallis et al 2001). Some researchers considered a maximum of four-hour
observational session appropriate (Pill 1970, Brown 1989, Clifford 1997).
A less contentious issue was the emphasis on vigilance in maintaining concen-
tration during the data collection process. McCrea et ai (1998) took 'comfort
breaks' and observational sessions lasted between four and nine hours. Smith
(1996) did not report taking comfort breaks, however, she did comment on the
exhaustive nature of concentration during continuous observational sessions.
Likewise, Hewison (1995) highlighted the need to overcome what Spradley
(1980) termed 'selective inattention'. This emphasises the importance of having
observational periods that are long enough to capture what is happening and
short enough to reduce observer exhaustion.
82 NURSERESE&RCHER 2006, 13, 3
Author Total number of hours observed per sessionHewison (1995) 2.5 to 4 hoursNolan ef a/(1995) 6 hoursWest (1996) 2 hoursSourtzi eta/(1996) 3.17 hoursWhile eta/(1998) 2.5 hoursMcCrea et al (1998) 4 to 9 hoursWaters and Easton (1999) 2 hoursHolyoake (1998) 4 hours maxFitzpatrick eta/1999 2.5 hoursRosalind and Wright (1999) 4 hoursShiu eta/(1999) 2 hoursDavies et al (2000) 3 to 9 hoursBucknall (2000) 2 hQursCox and Ahluwalia (2000) 3 hQursWoodward (2000) 6 hoursYounger and Geoffrey (2000) 6 hoursBooth et al (2001) 6 hoursWellard eta/(2003) 2 hours
Henderson (2003) 20 minutes to 1 hourZeitz (2005) 4 hours
During the pilot for my stu(jy I found that a continuous four-hour observa-
tional period was too long. Therefore the observational periods selected ranged
from a minimum of two hours to a maximum of 3.5 hours at any one time.
Gathering the observational data-positioning approaches
The literature identifies three main types of positioning approaches, single, mul-
tiple and mobile (Polit et al 2001. Polit and Tatano Beck 2004). Single position-
ing is where the researcher occupies one location only and observes interactions
in that location alone. In contrast, multiple positioning is where the researcher
moves around the study site spending some time in a number of sites, observing
interactions from different locations. Finally, mobile positioning may be adopted
whereby the observer follows a person during a given activity or observation
period. Only a few of the reviewed studies provided detailed information as
to the positioning adopted by the observer Hewison (1995) highlighted the
NURSERESE&RCMER 2006. 13. 3 83
importance of occupying an observation point, which pennitted observation
of as many interactions as possible. McCrea et al (1998) and Rosalind and
Wright (1999) emphasised the importance of being within hearing distance of
the participants. Other researchers also commented on the importance of being
proximate to participants. Some commented that the researcher followed the
nurse 'like a shadow continually making notes' while also keeping a discrete
distance when 'intimate' practices or discussions were taking place (Lundgren
and Segesten 2001).
As health ptumotion is often opportunistic it was imperative in my study that
I was able to follow the nurse around from patient to patient as s/he delivered
care. Therefore mobile positioning was selected.
Recording observational data
Field notes '...represent the participant observer's efforts to record information
and also to synthesise and understand the data' (Polit and Tatano Beck 2004).
This method of recording was used in many studies to collect the observa-
tional data (Reid 1991. Wigens 1997, Anderson 1997. Burden 1998. McCrea
et al 1998, Offredy 1998. Waters and Easton 1999. Woodward 2000. Cox and
Ahluwalia 2000. Wallis et al 2001, Walker and Dewar 2001. Wikstrom and
Larsson 2003). However, as identified by Huxham and Vangen (2003), the
method means that details often have to be forfeited and there is a tension
between trying to write down observations as they occur, while simultaneously
trying to pay attention to what is happening.
Others researchers used field notes along with more structured observational
tools to collect additional contextual information (Routasalo 1996. Fitzpatrick
et al 1999. Forster et al 1999. Davies et al 2000, Dowswell et al 2000). Other
studies did not use the term 'field notes', however their description ofthe data
collertion process would be similar to the latter. Hewison (1995) and Rosalind
and Wright (1999) described recording the data by using detailed handwrit-
ten notes. Smith (1996) reported that she wrote down key words, which she
expanded and elaborated on at a later phase. Hertzberg and Ekman (2000)
reported that detailed notes and quotations were made and these were expand-
ed upon by the use of tape recordings after the observations.
Some studies revealed that detailed audio taped commentary of observed
84 NURSEKESEARCHEK 2006, 13, 3
events was made. Bucknall (2000) reported that a head-mounted audio
recording device was used, allowing the observer to move with participants
while recording information. Similarly. Whyte and Watson (1998) focused on
obtaining accurate verbatim accounts from participants. Building on Macleod
Clark work (1982). which used microphones to investigate nurse-patient inter-
actions, they asked each participant to carry a microphone in their pocket, with
the radio receiver located outside the ward area. However, collecting spoken
word alone, without resource to other contextual information may be some-
what limiting.
Video recording was another method of collecting observational data identi-
fied. If mobile positioning is required, then more than one person or camera
is recommended (Latvala et al 2000). However, this makes the use of video
recording prohibitive in terms of expense and intrusiveness (Whyte and Watson
1998). Furthermore audio recording, unlike video recording allows the capture
of live anecdotal information which may not be captured by video.
In my study audio recording was used. Firstly I wore head mounted audio
equipment to record contextual information while the nurses simultaneously
recorded direct verbatim dialogue via the use of a lapel microphone connected
to a small portable recording device in their pocket. This ensured that I cap-
tured the context and direct verbatim speech. After each observational period I
listened to the tapes and matched the contextual data with the verbal dialogue
between nurse and patient. Although I found this very time consuming it
ensured that the verbal interactions were analysed within their context.
Interview dataThe second method of data collection utilised in this study was interviews.
Research interviews are one of the most common methods employed to col-
lect data (Parahoo 1997. Clarke 1999. Polit et al 2001. Holloway and Wheeler
2002. Polit and Tatano Beck 2004). A research interview involves the collec-
tion of verbal information carried out with the '...purpose of collecting valid
and reliable data to answer particular research questions' (Parahoo 1997).
Interviews seek to elicit what people are thinking and to ascertain things we
cannot overtly see (Patton 2002). Again the literature was reviewed in relation
to the advantages and disadvantages of this method of data collection.
NURSERESEARCHER 2006. 13, 3 85
Advantages and disadvantages of interviewing
A number of advantages to interviewing are cited. These include flexibility
in allowing in-depth exploration of the topic and immediate clarification of
issues (Bums and Grove 2001, Holloway and Wheeler 2002, Polit and Tatano
Beck 2004). Also response rates are usually high (Burns and Grove 2001, Polit
and Tatano Beck 2004). Disadvantages include the fact that it is time consum-
ing, demanding of the interviewer's skills (Bums and Grove 2001, Holloway
and Wheeler 2002, Polit and Tatano Beck 2004), sample sizes are usually small
(Parahoo 1997. Bums and Grove 2001, Polit and Tatano Beck 2004), inter-
viewer effect or social desirability, where the interviewee changes their response
to please the interviewer or to cast themselves in a good light (Bums and Grove
2001, Holloway and Wheeler 2002, Polit and Tatano Beck 2004).
I selected interviewing as a method of data collection as potential problems
could be reduced by spending time with participants so they would trust me
(Holloway and Wheeler 2002). Interviews would also allow me to interpret
the significance or otherwise of observational data. Furthennore combining
interviews and observations to collect the data would enable comparisons to be
made between nurses reported behaviour and actual behaviour. In this way any
differences between what respondents said, and what they actually did, could
be identified (Mays and Pope 1995).
Types of interviewing strategies
Within the literature a number of different names are given to similar inter-
viewing strategies. Patton (2002) describes three interviewing strategies, which
are not mutually exclusive. These are the informal conversational interview,
general interview guide approach and standardised open-ended interview.
This classification closely corresponds to unstmctured, structured, and semi-
structured interviewing identified by other writers (Polit et al 2001, Holloway
and Wheeler 2002, Polit and Tatano Beck 2004). Other classification includes
face-to-face, one-to-one interviews, group interviews and telephone interviews
(Creswell 2003).
Unstmctured interviews are flexible in the wording and order of the questions
(Parahoo 1997, Patton 2002). These are used when researchers are unsure as to
what it is they do not know about a particular phenomenon (Polit and Tatano
86 NURSEKESEARCMER 2006, 13, 3
Beck 2004). Structured interviews use an interview schedule that contains pre-
designed questions, which each interviewee is asked in exactly the same order
as listed on the schedule (Patton 2002, Holloway and Wheeler 2002). The aim
Is to obtain standardised responses to a set of predetermined questions (Parahoo
1997. Polit and Tatano Beck 2004). Semi-structured interviews loosely follow
an interview guide, which outlines the main topic areas to be covered, the
sequence of questions differs for each participant, depending on the process of
the interview (Holloway and Wheeler 2002). In addition the researcher is free
to focus more on different areas in the interview as required (Clarke 1999).
Semi structured interviews are usually used when the researcher wants to ensure
specific topics are addressed (Polit and Tatano Beck 2004).
In keeping with a qualitative approach, I selected the semi-structured one to
one interview and used an interview guide. This allowed me more flexibility in
identifying participant's understanding of health promotion and the extent to
which they felt they undertook or were involved in health promoting activities.
Role of interviewer
The skills of the interviewer are crucial for effective interviewing (May 1991).
The onus is on the interviewer to put respondents at ease. Therefore, the first
few minutes might consist of 'small talk' to relax the interviewee (Polit and
Tatano Beck 2004). The interviewer must listen attentively (/V\ay 1991, Patton
2002, Polit and Tatano Beck 2004) and build up a rapport via empathy and
understanding, and provide positive feedback by smiling and nodding as
appropriate (Patton, 2002). A successful qualitative interview is where the
interviewee is relaxed and the interviewer adopts a passive role and gives the
interviewee time to answer (Morse and Field 1996).
Questions need to be clear unambiguous and non directive (Patton 2002,
Holloway and Wheeler 2002, Polit and Tatano Beck 2004). Patton (2002)
identifies six types of interview questions, which can be used to investigate any
topic area. These are experience and behaviour questions (if I had been on the
ward with you, what would I have seen you doing?): opinion and value ques-
tions (what do you think about...?): feeling questions (how do you feel about
that?): knowledge questions (how do you cope with this illness?): sensory ques-
tions (when you walk through the door of the ward what do you see?): and
NURSEiSESEARCHER 2006, 13, 3 87
background or demographic questions. The interviewer may also use probes to
deepen the response and to clarify meaning (Burns and Grove 2001, Holloway
and Wheeler 2002. Patton 2002. Polit and Tatano Beck 2004).
I adopted an open relaxed posture, sitting close to respondents, maintain-
ing eye contact, smiling and nodding appropriately, conveying to them that
what they had to say was important. At the commencement of the interview I
explained that occasionally I would be glancing at the recorder to ensure that
it was recording. This was to make sure that respondents were not perturbed
when I lost eye contact for a few seconds during the interview.
Recording interview data
Morse and Field (1995) recommend that the interviewee choose the location
which ideally should be a quiet place free from interruptions. However in hos-
pital situations this Is not always possible (Holloway and Wheeler, 2002, Polit
and Tatano Beck 2004). In my study the nurse respondents selected the venue
for the interview. All were interviewed at their place of work. Each respondent
was interviewed individually, and the duration of the interview ranged from
between 30 to 50 minutes. Patient respondents were also given a choice of
venue, either on or off the ward. All opted to be interviewed at the bedside.
Interview data may be recorded in three ways, audio recorded, recorded via
note taking or it may be recorded via note taking immediately after interview
(Burns and Grove 2001, Holloway and Wheeler 2002). Audio recording is
the best method to use. allowing the researcher to acquire verbatim accounts
and to concentrate more on what is being said (Holloway and Wheeler 2002,
Patton, 2002). The recorder must be placed near the interviewee, but not so
that it causes a distraction (Bums and Grove 2001. Holloway and Wheeler
2002). A good recording device is advocated (Patton 2002, Holloway and
Wheeler 2002) for example, a Sony /V\iniDlsc recorder (Holloway and Wheeler
2002). Sometimes respondents prefer not to be audio recorded (Patton 2002,
Holloway and Wheeler 2002) and note taking should be used instead.
In my study most of the interviews were audio recorded using a Sony
MiniDisc recorder. A lapel microphone was attached to or placed as close to the
respondent as possible to reduce noise pollution. In one instance the respond-
ent preferred that I take notes rather than audio record. In this instance 1 jotted
88 NURSERESEARCHER 2006, 13. 3
down key words, and, where possible, some direct quotations. These were all
written up immediately after the interview.
ConclusionIn choosing the most appropriate methods of data collection, an examination
of research textbooks and research studies is required. In particular studies
reported in research journals and personal accounts of researcher's experi-
ences of using different research methods can be invaluable as they provide
practical advice based on first-hand experience as to 'why' and 'how ' meth-
ods of data collection may be utilised in the context of real-world research.
Dympna Casey RGN, BA Communications (Hons), MA Health Promotion(Hons), PhD, Lecturer, Centre for Nursing Studies, National University ofIreland, Galway, Ireland
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