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Prof. univ. dr. ION NEGRE-DOBRIDOR

DOCUMENTARpentruMICROPROIECTAREA PEDAGOGIC

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Documentarul Nr. 1

DESIGN INSTRUC IONAL

Definitions of Instructional Design

(Adapted from "Training and Instructional Design",Applied Research Laboratory , Penn State University)

Instructional Design as a Process:

Instructional Design is the systematic development of instructional specificationsusing learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is theentire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of adelivery system to meet those needs. It includes development of instructionalmaterials and activities; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities.

6. Instructional Design as a Discipline:

Instructional Design is that branch of knowledge concerned withresearch and theory about instructional strategies and the process for developing and implementing those strategies.

Instructional Design as a Science:

Instructional design is the science of creating detailed specifications for the development, implementation, evaluation, and maintenance of situations that facilitate the learning of both large and small units of subject matter at all levels of complexity.

Instructional Design as Reality:

Instructional design can start at any point in the design process. Often aglimmer of an idea is developed to give the core of an instructionsituation. By the time the entire process is done the designer looks backand she or he checks to see that all parts of the "science" have been

taken into account. Then the entire process is written up as if itoccurred in a systematic fashion.

Instructional System:

An instructional system is an arrangement of resources and proceduresto promote learning. Instructional design is the systematic process of developing instructional systems and instructional development is theprocess of implementing the system or plan.

Instructional Technology:

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Instructional technology is the systemic and systematic application of strategies and techniques derived from behavioral, cognitive, andconstructivist theories to the solution of instructional problems.

Instructional technology is the systematic application of theory and

other organized knowledge to the task of instructional design anddevelopment.

Instructional Technology = Instructional Design + InstructionalDevelopment

Instructional Development:

The process of implementing the design plans.

(from Wikipedia: )

Instructional Design (also called Instructional Systems Design (ISD) ) is the practice of maximizing the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences.The process consists broadly of determining the current state and needs of the learner, defining the endgoal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition. Ideally the process isinformed by pedagogically (process of teaching) and andragogically (adult learning) tested theoriesof learning and may take place in student-only, teacher-led or community-based settings. The outcomeof this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden andassumed. There are many instructional design models but many are based on the ADDIE model withthe five phases: 1) analysis, 2) design, 3) development, 4) implementation, and 5) evaluation. As afield, instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioralpsychology .

History

Much of the foundation of the field of instructional design was laid inWorld War II, when the U.S. military faced the need to rapidly train large numbers of people toperform complex technical tasks, from field-stripping a carbine to navigating acrossthe ocean to building a bombersee "Training Within Industry (TWI)". Drawing onthe research and theories of B.F. Skinner on operant conditioning, training programsfocused on observable behaviors. Tasks were broken down into subtasks, and eachsubtask treated as a separate learning goal. Training was designed to reward correctperformance and remediate incorrect performance. Mastery was assumed to bepossible for every learner, given enough repetition and feedback. After the war, thesuccess of the wartime training model was replicated in business and industrialtraining, and to a lesser extent in the primary and secondary classroom. Theapproach is still common in the U.S. military.[1]

In 1956, a committee led by Benjamin Bloom published an influentialtaxonomy of what he termed the three domains of learning: Cognitive (what oneknows or thinks), Psychomotor (what one does, physically) and Affective (what onefeels, or what

attitudesone has). These taxonomies still influence the design of

instruction.[2]

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During the latter half of the 20th century, learning theories began to beinfluenced by the growth of digital computers.

In the 1970s, many instructional design theorists began to adopt an information-processing-based approach to the design of instruction. David Merrill for instance

developed Component Display Theory (CDT) , which concentrates on the means of presenting instructional materials (presentation techniques).[3]

Later in the 1980s and throughout the 1990s cognitive load theory began tofind empirical support for a variety of presentation techniques.[4]

Cognitive load theory and the design of instruction

Cognitive load theory developed out of several empirical studies of learners,as they interacted with instructional materials.[5] Sweller and his associates began tomeasure the effects of working memory load, and found that the format of instructional materials has a direct effect on the performance of the learners usingthose materials. [6][7][8]

While the media debates of the 1990s focused on the influences of media onlearning, cognitive load effects were being documented in several journals. Rather than attempting to substantiate the use of media, these cognitive load learningeffects provided an empirical basis for the use of instructional strategies. Mayer asked the instructional design community to reassess the media debate, to refocustheir attention on what was most important: learning.[9]

By the mid- to late-1990s, Sweller and his associates had discovered severallearning effects related to cognitive load and the design of instruction (e.g. the splitattention effect, redundancy effect, and the worked-example effect ). Later, other researchers like Richard Mayer began to attribute learning effects to cognitive load.[9] Mayer and his associates soon developed a Cognitive Theory of MultimediaLearning.[10][11][12]

In the past decade, cognitive load theory has begun to be internationallyaccepted [13] and begun to revolutionize how practitioners of instructional design viewinstruction. Recently, human performance experts have even taken notice of cognitive load theory, and have begun to promote this theory base as the science of

instruction, with instructional designers as the practitioners of this field.[14]

FinallyClark, Nguyen and Sweller [15] published a textbook describing how InstructionalDesigners can promote efficient learning using evidence-based guidelines of cognitive load theory.

Instructional Designers use various instructional strategies to reduce cognitiveload. For example, they think that the onscreen text should not be more than 150words or the text should be presented in small meaningful chunks. The designersalso use auditory and visual methods to communicate information to the learner.

Learning design

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The concept of learning design arrived in the literature of technology for education in the late nineties and early 2000s [16] with the idea that "designers andinstructors need to choose for themselves the best mixture of behaviourist andconstructivist learning experiences for their online courses" [17]. But the concept of learning design is probably as old as the concept of teaching. Learning design might

be defined as "the description of the teaching-learning process that takes place in aunit of learning (eg, a course, a lesson or any other designed learning event)" [18].

As summarized by Britain[19], learning design may be associated with:

The concept of learning design The implementation of the concept made by learning design specifications like

PALO, IMS Learning Design [20] , LDL,SLD 2.0, etc... The technical realisations around the implementation of the concept like

TELOS, RELOAD LD-Author, etc...

Instructional design models

ADDIE process

Perhaps the most common model used for creating instructional materials is theADDIE Process . This acronym stands for the 5 phases contained in the model:

Analyze analyze learner characteristics, task to be learned, etc.

Identify Instructional Goals, Conduct Instructional Analysis, Analye Learners andContexts

Design develop learning objectives, choose an instructional approach

Write Performance Objectives, Develop Assessment Instruments, DevelopInstructional Strategy

Develop create instructional or training materials

Design and selection of materials appropriate for learning activity, Design and

Conduct Formative Evaluation9. Implement deliver or distribute the instructional materials10.Evaluate make sure the materials achieved the desired goals

Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation

Most of the current instructional design models are variations of the ADDIEprocess. [21] Dick,W.O,.Carey, L.,&Carey, J.O.(2004)And FYI, Susan Schminke failsas an instructor!Systematic Design of Instruction.Boston,MA:Allyn&Bacon.

Rapid prototyping

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A sometimes utilized adaptation to the ADDIE model is in a practice known asrapid prototyping .

Proponents suggest that through an iterative process the verification of thedesign documents saves time and money by catching problems while they are still

easy to fix. This approach is not novel to the design of instruction, but appears inmany design-related domains including software design, architecture, transportationplanning, product development, message design, user experience design, etc. [21][22][23] In fact, some proponents of design prototyping assert that a sophisticatedunderstanding of a problem is incomplete without creating and evaluating some typeof prototype, regardless of the analysis rigor that may have been applied up front. [24] In other words, up-front analysis is rarely sufficient to allow one to confidently selectan instructional model. For this reason many traditional methods of instructionaldesign are beginning to be seen as incomplete, naive, and even counter-productive.[25]

However, some consider rapid prototyping to be a somewhat simplistic type of model. As this argument goes, at the heart of Instructional Design is the analysisphase. After you thoroughly conduct the analysisyou can then choose a modelbased on your findings. That is the area where most people get snaggedtheysimply do not do a thorough-enough analysis. (Part of Article By Chris Bressi onLinkedIn)

Dick and Carey

Another well-known instructional design model is The Dick and CareySystems Approach Model .[26] The model was originally published in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitledThe Systematic Design of Instruction .

Dick and Carey made a significant contribution to the instructional design fieldby championing a systems view of instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as asum of isolated parts. The model addresses instruction as an entire system, focusingon the interrelationship between context, content, learning and instruction. Accordingto Dick and Carey, "Components such as the instructor, learners, materials,instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environmentsinteract with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learningoutcomes".[26] The components of the Systems Approach Model, also known as the

Dick and Carey Model, are as follows: Identify Instructional Goal(s): goal statment describes a skill, knowledge or

attitude(SKA) that a learner will be expected to acquire Conduct Instructional Analysis: Identify what a learner must recall and identify

what learner must be able to do to perform particular task Analyze Learners and Contexts: General characteristic of the target audience,

Characteristic directly related to the skill to be taught, Analysis of PerformanceSetting, Analysis of Learning Setting

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Write Performance Objectives: Objectives consists of a description of thebehavior, the condition and criteria. The component of an objective thatdescribes the criteria that will be used to judge the learner's performance.

Develop Assessment Instruments: Purpose of entry behavior testing, purpose

of pretesting, purpose of pottesting, purpose of practive items/practiveproblems Develop Instructional Strategy: Preinstructional activities, content presentation,

Learner participation, assessment Develop and Select Instructional Materials

Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction: Designer try toidentify areas of the instructional materials that are in need to improvement.

Revise Instruction: To identify poor test items and to identify poor instruction

Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation

With this model, components are executed iteratively and in parallel rather thanlinearly.[26] http://www.slideshare.net/akteacher/dick-cary-instructional-design-model

Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS)

Another instructional design model is theInstructional Development LearningSystem (IDLS).[27] The model was originally published in 1970 by Peter J. Esseff,PhD and Mary Sullivan Esseff, PhD in their book entitledIDLSPro Trainer 1: How to Design, Develop, and Validate Instructional Materials .[28]

Peter (1968) & Mary (1972) Esseff both received their doctorates in EducationalTechnology from the Catholic University of America under the mentorship of Dr.Gabriel Ofiesh, a Founding Father of the Military Model mentioned above. Esseff andEsseff contributed synthesized existing theories to develop their approach tosystematic design, "Instructional Development Learning System" (IDLS).

The components of the IDLS Model are:

Design a Task Analysis Develop Criterion Tests and Performance Measures

Develop Interactive Instructional Materials

Validate the Interactive Instructional Materials

Other models

Some other useful models of instructional design include: the Smith/RaganModel, the Morrison/Ross/Kemp Model and theOAR model, as well as, Wigginstheory of backward design .

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Learning theories also play an important role in the design of instructional materials.Theories such as behaviorism , constructivism , social learning and cognitivism help shape and define the outcome of instructional materials.

Influential researchers and theorists

Alphabetic by last name

Bloom, Benjamin Taxonomies of the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains 1955

Bonk, Curtis Blended learning 2000s

Bransford, John D. How People Learn: Bridging Research and Practice 1999

Bruner, Jerome Constructivism

Carr-Chellman, Alison Instructional Design for Teachers ID4T -2010 Carey, L. "The Systematic Design of Instruction"

Clark, Richard Clark-Kosma "Media vs Methods debate", "Guidance" debate .

Clark, Ruth Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to ManageCognitive Load / Guided Instruction / Cognitive Load Theory

Dick, W. "The Systematic Design of Instruction"

Gagn, Robert M. Nine Events of Instruction (Gagn and Merrill VideoSeminar)

Heinich, Robert Instructional Media and the new technologies of instruction3rd ed. Educational Technology 1989

Jonassen, David problem-solving strategies 1990s

Langdon, Danny G - The Instructional Designs Library: 40 InstructionalDesigns, Educational Tech. Publications

Mager, Robert F. ABCD model for instructional objectives 1962 Merrill, M. David - Component Display Theory / Knowledge Objects

Papert, Seymour Constructionism, LOGO 1970s

Piaget, Jean Cognitive development 1960s

Piskurich, George Rapid Instructional Design 2006

Simonson, Michael Instructional Systems and Design via DistanceEducation 1980s

Schank, Roger Constructivist simulations 1990s

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Sweller, John - Cognitive load , Worked-example effect , Split-attention effect

Reigeluth, Charles Elaboration Theory, "Green Books" I, II, and III - 1999-2010

Skinner, B.F. Radical Behaviorism, Programed Instruction Vygotsky, Lev Learning as a social activity 1930s

Wiley, David Learning Objects, Open Learning 2000s

References

1. ^ MIL-HDBK-29612/2A Instructional Systems Development/Systems Approach to Training and Education

2. ^ Bloom's Taxonomy

3. ^ TIP: Theories

4. ^ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. - Educational Psychologist - 38(1):1 - Citation

5. ^ Sweller, J. (1988). "Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects onlearning". Cognitive Science 12 (1): 257285. doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7.

6. ^ Chandler, P. & Sweller, J. (1991). "Cognitive Load Theory and theFormat of Instruction". Cognition and Instruction 8 (4): 293332.doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2.

7. ^ Sweller, J., & Cooper, G.A. (1985). "The use of worked examples asa substitute for problem solving in learning algebra". Cognition and Instruction 2 (1): 5989. doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0201_3.

8. ^ Cooper, G., & Sweller, J. (1987). "Effects of schema acquisition andrule automation on mathematical problem-solving transfer".Journal of Educational Psychology 79 (4): 347362. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.79.4.347.

9. ^a

b

Mayer, R.E. (1997). "Multimedia Learning: Are We Asking the RightQuestions?". Educational Psychologist 32 (41): 119.doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3201_1 .

10. ^ Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia Learning . Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. ISBN 0-521-78239-2.

11. ^ Mayer, R.E., Bove, W. Bryman, A. Mars, R. & Tapangco, L. (1996)."When Less Is More: Meaningful Learning From Visual and VerbalSummaries of Science Textbook Lessons". Journal of Educational Psychology 88 (1): 6473. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.88.1.64.

12. ^ Mayer, R.E., Steinhoff, K., Bower, G. and Mars, R. (1995). "Agenerative theory of textbook design: Using annotated illustrations to

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_loadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worked-example_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worked-example_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split-attention_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split-attention_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.F._Skinnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.F._Skinnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotskyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_A._Wileyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-0http://assist.daps.dla.mil/quicksearch/basic_profile.cfm?ident_number=207794http://assist.daps.dla.mil/quicksearch/basic_profile.cfm?ident_number=207794http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-1http://www.officeport.com/edu/blooms.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-2http://tip.psychology.org/merrill.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-3http://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_1?cookieSet=1&journalCode=ephttp://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_1?cookieSet=1&journalCode=ephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Sweller_1988_4-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0364-0213(88)90023-7http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0364-0213(88)90023-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Chandler_Sweller_1991_5-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1207%2Fs1532690xci0804_2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Sweller_Cooper_1985_6-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1207%2Fs1532690xci0201_3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Cooper_Sweller_1987_7-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-0663.79.4.347http://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-0663.79.4.347http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Mayer_1997_8-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Mayer_1997_8-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15326985ep3201_1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Mayer_2001_9-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-78239-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Mayer_Bove_Mars_Tapangco_1996_10-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-0663.88.1.64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Mayer_Steinhoff_Bower_Mars_1995_11-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_loadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worked-example_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split-attention_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split-attention_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.F._Skinnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotskyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_A._Wileyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-0http://assist.daps.dla.mil/quicksearch/basic_profile.cfm?ident_number=207794http://assist.daps.dla.mil/quicksearch/basic_profile.cfm?ident_number=207794http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-1http://www.officeport.com/edu/blooms.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-2http://tip.psychology.org/merrill.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-3http://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_1?cookieSet=1&journalCode=ephttp://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_1?cookieSet=1&journalCode=ephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Sweller_1988_4-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0364-0213(88)90023-7http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0364-0213(88)90023-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Chandler_Sweller_1991_5-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1207%2Fs1532690xci0804_2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Sweller_Cooper_1985_6-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1207%2Fs1532690xci0201_3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Cooper_Sweller_1987_7-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-0663.79.4.347http://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-0663.79.4.347http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Mayer_1997_8-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Mayer_1997_8-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15326985ep3201_1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Mayer_2001_9-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-78239-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Mayer_Bove_Mars_Tapangco_1996_10-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-0663.88.1.64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Mayer_Steinhoff_Bower_Mars_1995_11-0


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foster meaningful learning of science text". Educational Technology Research and Development 43 (1): 3141. doi:10.1007/BF02300480.

13. ^ Paas, F., Renkl, A. & Sweller, J. (2004). "Cognitive Load Theory:Instructional Implications of the Interaction between Information

Structures and Cognitive Architecture". Instructional Science 32: 18.doi:10.1023/B:TRUC.0000021806.17516.d0.

14. ^ Clark, R.C., Mayer, R.E. (2002). e-Learning and the Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning . San Francisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN 0-7879-6051-9.

15. ^ Clark, R.C., Nguyen, F., and Sweller, J. (2006). Efficiency inLearning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load . SanFrancisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN 0-7879-7728-4.

16. ^ Conole G., and Fill K., A learning design toolkit to createpedagogically effective learning activities. Journal of Interactive Mediain Education, 2005 (08).

17. ^ Carr-Chellman A. and Duchastel P., The ideal online course, BritishJournal of Educational Technology, 31(3), 229-241, July 2000.

18. ^ Koper R., Current Research in Learning Design, EducationalTechnology & Society, 9 (1), 13-22, 2006.

19. ^ Britain S., A Review of Learning Design: Concept, Specifications andTools A report for the JISC E-learning Pedagogy Programme, May2004.

20. ^ IMS Learning Design webpage

21.^ a b Piskurich, G.M. (2006). Rapid Instructional Design: Learning ID fastand right.

22. ^ Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American educational technology .

23. ^ Stolovitch, H.D., & Keeps, E. (1999). Handbook of human performance technology .

24. ^ Kelley, T., & Littman, J. (2005). The ten faces of innovation: IDEO'sstrategies for beating the devil's advocate & driving creativitythroughout your organization. New York: Doubleday.

25. ^ Hokanson, B., & Miller, C. (2009). Role-based design: Acontemporary framework for innovation and creativity in instructionaldesign. Educational Technology, 49(2), 2128.

26.^ a b c Dick, Walter, Lou Carey, and James O. Carey (2005) [1978]. The Systematic Design of Instruction (6th ed.). Allyn & Bacon. pp. 112.ISBN 0205412742. http://books.google.com/?id=sYQCAAAACAAJ&dq=the+systematic+design+of+instruction .

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27. ^ Esseff, Peter J. and Esseff, Mary Sullivan (1998) [1970].Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS) (8th ed.). ESFPress. pp. 112. ISBN 1582830371. http://esf-protrainer.com/Materials.html .

28. ^ [1]

Documentarul Nr. 2

O istorie a designului instruc ional

A Brief History of Instructional Design

By Douglas Leigh

As a formal discipline, Instructional Systems Design has been a long time in themaking. The early contributions of thinkers such as Aristotle, Socrates and Platoregarding the cognitive basis of learning and memory was later expanded by the 13thcentury philosopher St. Thomas Aquinas who discussed the perception of teachingsin terms of free will. Four hundred years later, John Locke advanced Aristotle's notionof human's initial state of mental blankness by proposing that almost all reason andknowledge must be gained from experience. Then, at the turn of the 20th centuryJohn Dewey presented several tenets of the philosophy of education which promotedthe idea that learning occurs best when married with doing , rather than roteregurgitation of facts.

As the 1920's approached, a behaviorist approach to educational psychologybecame increasingly predominant. Thorndike's theory of connectionism representsthe original stimulus-response (S-R) model of behavioral psychology, and wasexpanded on some twenty years later by Hull in his exposition of drive reduction amotivational model of behavior which emphasizes learner's wants, attention, andactivities. With the Industrial Revolution came an increased attention to productivity,and educational behaviorists during the 1920's such as Sidney Pressey appliedmechanized technology to increase the efficiency of the learning process. Thoughtheir initial incarnation did not see much use after the Depression, many of thelessons learned research into these teaching machines regarding the delivery of standardized instruction contributed to the instructional media research &development movement of World War II.

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The advent of the Second World War presented a tremendous instructionaldilemma: the rapid training of hundreds of thousands of military personnel. RalphTyler's work a decade before WWII indicated that objectives were most useful toinstructional developers if written in terms of desired learner behaviors. Armed withthis knowledge and the experience of creating standardize methods of instructional

delivery using teaching machines, military researchers developed a bevy of trainingfilms and other mediated materials for instructional purposes. In part, the UnitedStates' heavy investment in training and R&D was credited with the country's victoryin the war. With the economic boom that followed, federal dollars followedresearcher's desire to better flesh out the underpinnings of learning, cognition, andinstruction.

The 1950's are characterized by a shift away from the uninformed application of instructional technology to the formulation of theoretical models of learning. Thepublication of B. F. Skinner's The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching in1954 canonized the basic behaviorist principles of S-R, feedback, and reinforcement. As the key element of his theory of operant conditioning, the reinforcement of desiredlearner responses was also incorporated into Skinner's implementations of programmed instruction. Considered by many the progenitor of contemporaryinstructional design, programmed instruction emphasizes the formulation of behavioral objectives, breaking instructional content into small units and rewardingcorrect responses early and often.

Another substantial instructional theorist of the 1950's was Benjamin Bloom. His1956 taxonomy of intellectual behaviors provided instructors a means by which todecide how to impart instructional content to learners most effectively. Advocating amastery approach to learning, Bloom endorsed instructional techniques that variedboth instruction and time according to learner requirements. While this approachprovided instructional developers a means by which to match subject matter andinstructional methods, Bloom's taxonomy was not in and of itself capable of satisfyingthe desire of large organizations to relate resources and processes to theperformances of individuals. To achieve this researchers in the military's Air Research and Development Command borrowed from Ludwig von Bertalanffy'sGeneral Systems Theory of biological interactions to integrate the operations of awide range of departments, such as training, intelligence, and staffing. Combinedwith the Bloom's Taxonomy, the systems approach to instructional and organizationaldevelopment allowed planners and policy-makers to match the content and delivery

of instruction in a fashion which considered both super- and sub-systems (theorganization as a whole, as well as groups and individuals within the organization).These advances of Skinner, Bloom and von Bertalanffy were usually employed todevelop instruction in what was onlyassumed to be an effective an efficient manner.The formalization of a standardized design process still had yet to be devised.

Again it was a crisis that spurred the next evolution of instructional technology a shift away from an emphasis in the development of instructional programs to onewhich focused on the design of entire curriculum. Again the crisis was a war, but thistime the war was a political one. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the Sputniksatellite and began the "space race". America was taken by surprise and the

government was forced to reevaluate the education system and its shortcomings.

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Science and math programs were the first to be targeted, and the governmentemployed experts in these fields to bring the content up to date.

In 1962 Robert Glaser synthesized the work of previous researchers andintroduced the concept of "instructional design", submitting a model which links

learner analysis to the design and development of instruction. Interestingly, Glaser'scontribution to the current field of instructional systems is not so much in theadvancement of his model, but in work concerning Individually Prescribed Instruction(IPI), an approach whereby the results of a learner's placement test are used to planlearner-specific instruction.

At the same time Glaser was developing his theories of instructional design andIPI, Robert Mager published his treatise on the construction of performanceobjectives. Mager suggested that an objective should describe in measurable termswho an objective targets, the behavior they will have exhibited, the conditions or limitations under which they must carry out this behavior, and the criteria againstwhich their behavior will be gauged.

As early as 1962 when he published "Military Training and Principles of Learning" Robert Gagn demonstrated a concern for the different levels of learning.His differentiation of psychomotor skills, verbal information, intellectual skills,cognitive strategies, and attitudes provides a companion to Bloom's six cognitivedomains of learning. Later, Gagn extended his thinking to include nine instructionalevents that detail the conditions necessary for learning to occur. These events havelong since been used for the basis for the design of instruction and the selection of appropriate media.

The mediation of instruction entered the computer age in the 1960's whenPatrick Suppes conducted his initial investigations into computer-assisted instruction(CAI) at Stanford University. Developed through a systematic analysis of curriculum,Suppes' CAI provided learner feedback, branching, and response tracking aspectswere later incorporated into the PLATO system in the 1970's and continue guide thedevelopment of today's instructional software.

By the late 1960's America was again in crisis. Not only was the countryinvolved in another war, but the nation's schools were unable to elicit theachievement from learners it anticipated. Grant Venn argued that since only 19% of

first graders complete a bachelor or arts degree, that the current educational systemis only serving the advantaged minority of schoolchildren. To counter this trendRobert Morgan proposed to conduct an experiment with an "organic curriculum"which would to incorporate into the educational system the best instructionalpractices identified through research. Accepted in 1967 the proposal by the US Officeof Education, the project was dubbed "Educational Systems for the 1970's", or ES'70.Morgan engaged an array of experts in the field of learning, cognition, andinstructional design to contribute to the project and carried out multiple experimentsin a variety of settings. Of these was Leslie Briggs, who had demonstrated that aninstructionally designed course could yield up to 2:1 increase over conventionallydesigned courses in terms of achievement, reduction in variance, and reduction of

time-to-completion this effect was four times that of the control group whichreceived no training. In 1970, Morgan partnered with the Florida Research and13


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Development Advisory Board to conduct a nation-wide educational reform project inSouth Korea. Faced with the task of increasing the achievement of learners while atthe same time reducing the cost of schooling from $41.27 per student per year Morgan applied some of the same techniques as had been piloted in the ES'70project and achieved striking results: an increase in student achievement, a more

efficient organization of instructors and course content, an increased teacher tostudent ratio, a reduction in salary cost, and a reduction in yearly per student cost by$9.80.

Around this time Roger Kaufman developed a problem-solving framework for educational strategic planning which provided practitioners a means by which todemonstrate value-added not only for the learner, but the school system and societyas a whole. This framework provided the basis for the Organizational ElementsModel (OEM), a needs assessment model which specifies results to be achieved atsocietal, organizational, and individual performance levels. By rigorously definingneeds as gaps in results Kaufman emphasized that performance improvementinterventions can not demonstrate return-on-investment unless those interventionswere derived from the requirements of these three primary clients and beneficiariesof organizational action. This approach to needs assessment and strategic planninghas since been used across the world as the foundation for planning, evaluation, andcontinuous improvement in military, business, and educational settings.

A variety of models for instructional system design proliferated the late 1970'sand early 80's: Gagn and Briggs, Branson, Dick and Carey, and Atkins, to name afew. One possible reason for this phenomenon deals with the establishment of formaleducation and training departments within both public and private organizations.Faced with the computerized technologies of the times, these organizations require ameans by which to quickly develop appropriate methods by which to educate internalemployees in the new business practices ushered into existence by the Information Age. Another explanation is that businesses, especially consulting organizations, arebecoming increasingly required to demonstrate value-added not only to their organization, but to the clients they serve. The evaluation and continuousimprovement components of contemporary models of ISD make far strides from theearly develop-and-implement models of the middle of the century in this aspect.

In the 1990's a dual focus on technology and performance improvement hasdeveloped. For example, in his 1988 essay "Why the Schools Can't Improve: The

Upper Limit Hypothesis" Robert Branson offers an argument for systemic schoolreform, suggesting that schools are operating at near peak efficiency and must beredesigned from the top down using technological interventions. Later in that year Branson was contracted by the Florida Department of Education (DOE) to analyzeit's various programs and plan a system-wide technology-based educational reforminitiative for Florida called Schoolyear 2000. Over the next several years Branson'steam developed and piloted multiple computerized instructional technologies, as wellas models of the interaction between the internal operations of the school systemand the experiences and knowledge of students, parents, and teachers.

Developments in performance improvement outside ISD during the 1990's such

as Quality Management (QM), Organizational Engineering, and ChangeManagement have required that instructional designers look outside their profession14


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to demonstrate the utility of their practice. Introduced earlier by Deming, QM hasswept public and private organizations alike in the 90's. Whereas initially thought of interms of "quality control" or "zero defects", quality practices have evolved into toolsfor organizational continuous improvement. Similarly, instructional designers in the90's often work alongside authorities in the field of organizational engineering.

Characterized by a concern for an organization's culture and interaction betweengroups, organizational engineering seeks to improve organizations through theidentification of relationships between an organization's vision, mission, goals,methods and personnel. Similarly, change management has become a business inand of itself, with leaders such as Darly Conner and Joel Barker pioneering methodsfor and models of organizational change.

The advent of new media, such as the Internet and hypermedia, has broughtabout not only technological innovations, but also coupled these with new ways of approaching learning and instruction. As opposed to the behavioralist perspectivethat emphasizes learning objectives, the constructivist approach holds that learnersconstruct their understanding of reality from interpretations of their experiences.Theorists such as Thomas Duffy and Seymour Papert suggest that constructivismprovides a model whereby socio-cultural and cognitive issues regarding the design of learning environments can be supported by computer tools. This philosophy hasbeen applied to such computerized technologies as online help systems andprogramming language LOGO.

In the future, instructional designers are likely to choose one of two paths:specialist or generalist. In the prior path, designers will focus on one aspect of learning or instruction and act as consultants or subject matter experts, whether internal or external to the organization. The other approach is one more aligned withmanagerial activities. Since the field is becoming too broad for most designers towork with authority in all matters, this option allows practitioners to oversee thedevelopment of instructional projects, rather than narrow their efforts exclusively onassessment, analysis, design, development, implementation, evaluation or continuous improvement.

References

Boling, E. (1996). Instructional Technology Foundations I: Historical TimelinesProject Page [Online]. Available:

http://education.indiana.edu/~istcore/r511/datelist.html [1998, June 7].Kearsley, G. (1994). Learning & Instruction: The TIP Database [Online]. Available:http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/1.htm [1998, June 7].

Reiser, R. A. (1987). Instructional Technology: A History. In R. M. Gagn (ed.),Instructional Technology: Foundations (pp. 11 - 40). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Shrock, S. A. (No date). A Brief History of Instructional Development [Online].Available: http://uttc-med.utb.edu/6320/chapters/summary_ch2.html [1998,

June 7].

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Documentarul Nr. 3

Condi iile nv rii eficiente dup R: M.Gagn

( Gagnes Conditions of Learning Theory)

A) Description

Although Gagnes theoretical framework covers many aspects of learning, "thefocus of the theory is on intellectual skills" (Kearsley, 1994a). Gagnes theory is veryprescriptive. In its original formulation, special attention was given to military training(Gagne 1962, as cited in Kearsley, 1994a).

In this theory, five major types of learning levels are identified:

verbal information intellectual skills

cognitive strategies

motor skills

attitudes

The importance behind the above system of classification is that each learning

level requires "different internal and external conditions" (Kearsley 1994a) i.e., eachlearning level requires different types of instruction. Kearsley provides the followingexample:

for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practicedeveloping new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must beexposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

Gagne also contends that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organizedin a hierarchy according to complexity:

stimulus recognition response generation

procedure following

use of terminology

discriminations

concept formation

rule application

problem solving

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The primary significance of this hierarchy is to provide direction for instructorsso that they can "identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learningat each level" (Kearsley 1994a). This learning hierarchy also provides a basis for sequencing instruction. Gagne outlines the followingnine instructional events andcorresponding cognitive processes (as cited in Kearsley 1994a):

gaining attention (reception) informing learners of the objective (expectancy)

stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)

presenting the stimulus (selective perception)

providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)

eliciting performance (responding)

providing feedback (reinforcement) assessing performance (retrieval)

enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)

B) Practical Application

Gagnes nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes can serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media(Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1992, as cited in Kearsley 1994a). In applying these

instructional events, Kearsley (1994a) suggests keeping the following principles inmind:

10.Learning hierarchies define a sequence of instruction.11.Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned.

12.Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.

EXAMPLE

The following example applies Gagne's nine instructional events:

Instructional Objective: Recognize an equilateral triangle (example fromKearsley 1994a).

Methodology:

o Gain attention - show a variety of computer generated triangles

o Identify objective - pose question: "What is an equilateral triangle?"

o Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangles

o Present stimulus - give definition of equilateral triangle

o Guide learning - show example of how to create equilateral17
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o Elicit performance - ask students to create 5 different examples

o Provide feedback - check all examples as correct/incorrect

o Assess performance - provide scores and remediation

o Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects and askstudents to identify equilateral triangles.

C) Related Theories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical Web-DesignStrategies

Provide a variety of learning activities. Instructional designers shouldanticipate and accommodate alternate learning styles by "systematicallyvarying teaching and assessment methods to reach every student" (Sternberg1994, as cited in Ross-Gordon 1998, 227). They should also provide alternateoffline materials and activities, as well as, present "alternate points of view andinterpretations" (Fahy 1999, 237) so that the learner is free to "[criss-cross] theintellectual landscape of the content domain by looking at it from multipleperspectives or through multiple themes" (Jonassen et al., 1997, 122).

Use Blooms "Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for the CognitiveDomain" to increase retention. Blooms Taxonomy of EducationalObjectives for the Cognitive Domain (1956, as cited in Fahy 1999, 42-43) issimilar to Gagnes hierarchy of intellectual skills . Bloom outlines thefollowing cognitive activities organized from least to greater complexity:

- knowledge

- comprehension- application- analysis- synthesis- evaluation (making judgements)

In the following example, Blooms taxonomy is used to illustratedifferent objectives related to learning objectives for studying nails(Fahy 1999, 43):

Knowledge Know enough about nails to be able to explain what theyare and what they are used for. Be able to recognize a nail as afastening device from a non-fastening devices.

Comprehension Be able to identify a nail and distinguish it fromother fastening devices.

Application Be able to use a nail to fasten something competently,and actually do so.

Analysis Be able to determine what kind of nail and nailing techniquewould be required for most effective use of the device for a specificpurpose.

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Synthesis Be able to compare nails to other fastening devices, andto compare various types of nails and nailing techniques for their specific qualities and characteristics in specific situations.

Evaluation Be able to assess examples of the use of nails for

fastening, and different nailing techniques, and to pass judgement as towhich were more effective, more artistic, more secure, more skillful,more workman like, etc.

Documentarul Nr. 4

4. Teoria minimalist a lui John B. Carroll

( Carrolls Minimalist Theory )

A) Description

The Minimalist theory of J.M. Carroll focuses on the instructional design of training materials for computer users and has been "extensively applied to the designof computer documentation" (e.g., Nowaczyk & James, 1993, van der Meij, & Carroll,1995, as cited in Kearsley 1994d). It is based upon studies of people learning a widerange of computer applications including word processors and databases.

As Kearsley (1994d) explains, this theory suggests that:

All learning activities should be meaningful and self-contained. Activities should exploit the learner's prior experience and knowledge.

Learners should be given realistic projects as quickly as possible.

Instruction should permit self-directed reasoning and improvising.

Training materials and activities should provide for error recognition and useerrors as learning opportunities.

There should be a close linkage between training and the actual systembecause "new users are always learning computer methods in the context of specific preexisting goals and expectations" (Carroll 1990, as cited in Kearsley

1994d).The critical idea behind Carroll's Minimalist theory is that course designers must

"minimize the extent to which instructional materials obstruct learning and focus thedesign on activities that support learner-directed activity and accomplishment"(Kearsley 1994d).

B) Practical Application

In applying Carrolls Minimalist theory, Kearsley (1994d) recommends the following:

Allow learners to start immediately on meaningful tasks.

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Minimize the amount of reading and other passive forms of training byallowing users to fill in the gaps themselves

Include error recognition and recovery activities in the instruction

Make all learning activities self-contained and independent of sequence.

EXAMPLE 1

The following is an example of a guided exploration approach to learning how touse a word processor (Carroll 1990, chapter 5, as cited in Kearsley 1994d).

Applying the principles of Carroll's Minimalist theory, a 94-page training manualis replaced by 25 cards. Each card is self contained and includes a meaningful taskand error recognition information. The cards do not provide complete step-by-stepspecifications but onlykey ideas or hints about what to do. Kearsley reports that "in

an experiment that compared the use of the cards versus the manual, users learnedthe task in about half the time with the cards."

EXAMPLE 2

The following example illustrates the redesign of a Web page using CarrollsMinimalist theory and other related web design strategies:

Problem: Below is a screen shot of The WINDeX Search Engine located athttp://windex.daci.net . This site allows software developers to submitshareware and freeware to be stored in their database. This page however has four serious design flaws: (a) the banners occupy too much valuablespace at the top of the screen; (b) "The Windex Index" image banner runs alake ripple Java applet which is highly distracting;(c) the lake ripple Javaapplet significantly increases the time it takes to download the page; (d) thewhite text on a blue background is difficult to read, especially considering thatthe site uses four colors for text: red, blue, white and black

Solution: (a) Carroll advises that learners should be allowed to start right awayon meaningful tasks . Jones and Farquhar (1997) advise that in web-design,important information should be kept on thetop of the page . Considering thisadvice, to improve this web page, the banners should be designed to occupy lessspace and the user input forms should be moved up higher so users don't have toscroll as much. (b) (c) (d) Carroll advises that web-design should minimize the extentto which instructional materialsobstruct learning. Gillani & Relan (1997) advise thatframes should be kept simple and be consistent in design of text, graphics and soundto limit cognitive overload . Similarly, Guay (1995, as cited in Fahy 1999) advisesthat Web pages should reduce clutter and download in 30 seconds or less with a14.4 modem. Considering this advice, to improve the design of this web page, theJava applet should be removed as it greatly increases the time to download theentire page without adding to its usability. Furthermore, the ripple effect distracts fromthe content of the site and is just plain "annoying." Content that is not essential, suchas the "redesign notice" should also be removed or shrunk in size. Furthermore, the

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range of text colors should be reduced and a more suitable background chosen toimprove readability .

C) Related Theories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical Web-DesignStrategies

Keep important information at the top of the page. When learners come toa page, they immediately scan for interesting and important information. Goodweb-design demands that you give your learners the information they wantright away and in a hurry. Large graphics at the top of a page may beaesthetically pleasing, but take up too much of the immediate viewable spaceto be considered instructionally useful (Jones and Farquhar 1997).

Keep frames simple and be consistent in design of text, graphics andsound to limit cognitive overload. Guay advises that "cognitive bandwidthshould be minimized to ensure users easily and accurately grasp themessage" (as cited in Fahy 1999, 191). He also recommends that graphicsand other enhancements should "never obscure the central message of thepage" (p. 191). Jones and Farquhar (1997) advise that background to adisplay should not compete with or obscure the text. Simiarly Gillani & Relan1997, 236 maintain that "simplicity and consistency eliminates cognitiveoverload." Thus, multimedia components should be used "to reinforce rather than distract from learning."

Keep pages short so learners dont have to scroll. Research on the Websuggests that "users do not like to scroll" (Nielsen 1996, as cited in Jones &Farquhar 1997, 243). Guay (1995, as cited in Fahy 1999, 191) agrees with thisand advises that "each page should fit on the screen without scrolling." West(1998, as cited in Fahy 1999, 192) similarly advises that "the requirement for the user to scroll down in Web-based documents should be kept to aminimum, as many users will not scroll more than 3 times before abandoning asite." West also estimates that readers give only between 7 and 15 seconds toassess the probable usefulness of a site before leaving it. It should be notedthat "the problem with making pages short is that people may choose to printout certain pieces of information, or download the entire contents of a group of pages. This [problem can be solved] by combining all of the pages into asingle document that is labeled as such" (Jones and Farquar, 1997, 243). Aprint button can be provided so that users can eaisly print longer material for off-screen reading.

Keep pages uncluttered by extracting unnecessary elements. Broadbentstheory of single-channel processing states that "humans are capable of processing information through only one channel at a time and that it is notpossible to process two channels simultaneously"(Hsia 1968, as cited inSzabo 1998, 32). If this were to happen, audio and visual stimuli would arriveat the central nervous system simultaneously, causing the information to jam,and lead to poorer retention of material (Broadbent 1958, as cited in Szabo1998, 32). Guay (1995 as cited in Fahy 1999, 192) recommends that "eachpage should be uncluttered, readable, and balanced."

Pages should download in 30 seconds or less with 14.4 modem. Guayadvises that "physical bandwidth should be minimized to ensure acceptable

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access and response times" (1995 as cited in Fahy 1999, 191). Specialconsideration should be given to logos, banners, .pdf files, audio, and video tomake sure that these files do not slow down the site too much. Guay alsosuggests that tagging graphics (in HTML) with vertical and horizontal size canspeed download. Commercial graphics tools such as Adobe ImageReady 2.0

can also reduce graphics size by among other things reducing the color pallet. Screen excess information. Good design, as Carroll recommends, must

reduce excess information and allow learners to fill in the gaps. In support of this, Dede (1996, 13) maintains that the curriculum is "overcrowded with low-level information" and as a result, "teachers [must] frantically race throughrequired material, helping students memorize factual data to be regurgitatedon mandated, standardized tests." Dede also advises that "the core skill for todays workplace is not foraging for date, but filtering a plethora of incominginformation." He adds that as we increasingly are required to dive into a sea of information we must master the ability to immerse ourselves in data "to

harvest patterns of knowledge just as fish extract oxygen from water via their gills" (p. 6). Structure materials as topical modules. This "simplifies selective reuse of

course materials" (Butler 1997, 422). Strive for quality not quantity. Rockley (1997, as cited in Fahy 1999, 196-

197) gives the following advice for the planning and management of Web-based resources:

Design small. Make what you have effective, then add to it. Dont attempt to

do everything at once. Keep effects simple. Assure effects ADD to the message/content.

Map out the whole site. Both for development and maintenance.

Plan for growth. Anticipate and direct it.

Get feedback from users. And pay attention to it.

Test any outside links regularly. Dont link to sites which do not appear tobe will maintained or stable.

Give only one person edit privileges. Only one person should have sitemaintenance responsibilities.

Dont post any part of a site while it is still under construction . Everythingon your site should work now. Instead of "under construction, put upannouncements of the expected availability of "coming" or "new" features.

Documentarul Nr. 5

Taxonomia domeniilor nv rii a lui B.S.Bloom

( Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains )

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The Three Types of Learning

There is more than one type of learning . A committee of colleges, led byBenjamin Bloom (1956), identified three domains of educational activities:

3. Cognitive : mental skills (Knowledge )4. Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas ( Attitude )

5. Psychomotor : manual or physical skills (Skills )

Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a littlebigger than we normally use. Domains can be thought of as categories. Trainersoften refer to these three categories as KSA (Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude). Thistaxonomy of learning behaviors can be thought of as the goals of the learningprocess. That is, after a learning episode, the learner should have acquired newskills, knowledge, and/or attitudes.

The committee also produced an elaborate compilation for the cognitive andaffective domains, but none for the psychomotor domain. Their explanation for thisoversight was that they have little experience in teaching manual skills within thecollege level (I guess they never thought to check with their sports or dramadepartments).

This compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from thesimplest behavior to the most complex. The divisions outlined are not absolutes andthere are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised in the educational andtraining world. However, Bloom's taxonomy is easily understood and is probably themost widely applied one in use today.

Cognitive Domain

The cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) involves knowledge and the developmentof intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, proceduralpatterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities andskills. There are six major categories, which are listed in order below, starting fromthe simplest behavior to the most complex. The categories can be thought of asdegrees of difficulties. That is, the first ones must normally be mastered before thenext ones can take place.

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Knowledge : Recall data or information.

Examples : Recite a policy. Quote pricesfrom memory to a customer. Knows the

safety rules.

Key Words : defines, describes, identifies,knows, labels, lists, matches, names,

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outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces,selects, states.

Comprehension : Understandthe meaning, translation,

interpolation, and interpretationof instructions and problems.State a problem in one's own

words.

Examples : Rewrites the principles of testwriting. Explain in one's own words thesteps for performing a complex task.

Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet.

Key Words : comprehends, converts,defends, distinguishes, estimates,

explains, extends, generalizes, gives anexample, infers, interprets, paraphrases,

predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates.

Application : Use a concept in anew situation or unprompteduse of an abstraction. Applies

what was learned in theclassroom into novel situations

in the work place.

Examples : Use a manual to calculate anemployee's vacation time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a

written test.

Key Words : applies, changes, computes,constructs, demonstrates, discovers,

manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts,prepares, produces, relates, shows,

solves, uses.

Analysis : Separates material or concepts into component parts

so that its organizationalstructure may be understood.

Distinguishes between facts andinferences.

Examples : Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction.

Recognize logical fallacies inreasoning. Gathers information from a

department and selects the required tasksfor training.

Key Words : analyzes, breaks down,compares, contrasts, diagrams,

deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates,distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers,

outlines, relates, selects, separates.

Synthesis : Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements.

Put parts together to form awhole, with emphasis on

creating a new meaning or structure.

Examples : Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to

perform a specific task. Integrates trainingfrom several sources to solve a problem.

Revises and process to improve theoutcome.

Key Words : categorizes, combines,compiles, composes, creates, devises,

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designs, explains, generates, modifies,organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs,

relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites,summarizes, tells, writes.

Evaluation : Make judgmentsabout the value of ideas or

materials.

Examples : Select the most effectivesolution. Hire the most qualified candidate.

Explain and justify a new budget.

Key Words : appraises, compares,concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques,

defends, describes, discriminates,evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies,

relates, summarizes, supports.

Affective Domain

The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, Masia, 1973) includes the manner inwhich we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation,enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories are listed from thesimplest behavior to the most complex:


Receiving Phenomena : Awareness, willingness to hear,

selected attention.

Examples : Listen to others with respect.Listen for and remember the name of

newly introduced people.

Key Words : asks, chooses, describes,follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates,names, points to, selects, sits, erects,

replies, uses.

Responding to Phenomena : Active participation on the part of the learners. Attends and reacts

to a particular phenomenon.Learning outcomes mayemphasize compliance inresponding, willingness torespond, or satisfaction inresponding (motivation).

Examples : Participates in classdiscussions. Gives a presentation.

Questions new ideals, concepts, models,etc. in order to fully understand them.Know the safety rules and practices

them.

Key Words : answers, assists, aids,complies, conforms, discusses, greets,

helps, labels, performs, practices,presents, reads, recites, reports, selects,

tells, writes.

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Valuing : The worth or value aperson attaches to a particular

object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simpleacceptance to the more complexstate of commitment. Valuing isbased on the internalization of a

set of specified values, whileclues to these values are

expressed in the learner's overtbehavior and are often

identifiable.

Examples : Demonstrates belief in thedemocratic process. Is sensitive towardsindividual and cultural differences (value

diversity). Shows the ability to solveproblems. Proposes a plan to social

improvement and follows through withcommitment. Informs management onmatters that one feels strongly about.

Key Words : completes, demonstrates,differentiates, explains, follows, forms,

initiates, invites, joins, justifies,proposes, reads, reports, selects,

shares, studies, works.

Organization : Organizes valuesinto priorities by contrastingdifferent values, resolving

conflicts between them, andcreating an unique value system.The emphasis is on comparing,

relating, and synthesizing values.

Examples : Recognizes the need for balance between freedom andresponsible behavior. Accepts

responsibility for one's behavior.Explains the role of systematic planning

in solving problems. Acceptsprofessional ethical standards. Creates a

life plan in harmony with abilities,interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes timeeffectively to meet the needs of the

organization, family, and self.

Key Words : adheres, alters, arranges,combines, compares, completes,

defends, explains, formulates,generalizes, identifies, integrates,

modifies, orders, organizes, prepares,relates, synthesizes.

Internalizing values(characterization): Has a value

system that controls their behavior. The behavior is

pervasive, consistent, predictable,and most importantly,characteristic of the

learner. Instructional objectivesare concerned with the student'sgeneral patterns of adjustment(personal, social, emotional).

Examples : Shows self-reliance whenworking independently. Cooperates ingroup activities (displays teamwork).

Uses an objective approach in problemsolving. Displays a professional

commitment to ethical practice on adaily basis. Revises judgments and

changes behavior in light of newevidence. Values people for what they

are, not how they look.

Key Words : acts, discriminates,displays, influences, listens, modifies,

performs, practices, proposes, qualifies,questions, revises, serves, solves,

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verifies.

Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical movement,coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requirespractice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories are listed from the simplestbehavior to the most complex:


Perception : The ability to usesensory cues to guide motor

activity. This ranges from sensorystimulation, through cue selection,

to translation.

Examples : Detects non-verbalcommunication cues. Estimate wherea ball will land after it is thrown and

then moving to the correct location tocatch the ball. Adjusts heat of stove tocorrect temperature by smell and tasteof food. Adjusts the height of the forkson a forklift by comparing where the

forks are in relation to the pallet.

Key Words : chooses, describes,detects, differentiates, distinguishes,identifies, isolates, relates, selects.

Set : Readiness to act. It includesmental, physical, and emotional

sets. These three sets aredispositions that predetermine a

person's response to differentsituations (sometimes calledmindsets).

Examples : Knows and acts upon asequence of steps in a manufacturingprocess. Recognize one's abilities and

limitations. Shows desire to learn anew process (motivation). NOTE: Thissubdivision of Psychomotor is closely

related with the Responding tophenomena subdivision of the

Affective domain.

Key Words : begins, displays,explains, moves, proceeds, reacts,

shows, states, volunteers.

Guided Response : The earlystages in learning a complex skill

that includes imitation and trial anderror. Adequacy of performance is

achieved by practicing.

Examples : Performs a mathematicalequation as demonstrated. Follows

instructions to build a model.Responds hand-signals of instructor

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while learning to operate a forklift.

Key Words : copies, traces, follows,react, reproduce, responds

Mechanism : This is theintermediate stage in learning a

complex skill. Learned responseshave become habitual and the

movements can be performed withsome confidence and proficiency.

Examples : Use a personalcomputer. Repair a leaking faucet.

Drive a car.

Key Words : assembles, calibrates,constructs, dismantles, displays,

fastens, fixes, grinds, heats,manipulates, measures, mends,

mixes, organizes, sketches.

Complex Overt Response : Theskillful performance of motor actsthat involve complex movement

patterns. Profi

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