green enrgy

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Wind Energy

In recent years the need for alternative and clean (or possibly zero emission)

forms of energy has been a strong concern in the developed world.

Recent high fossil fuel prices and the problem of pollution have accelerated the research

in the direction of alternative green energies: solar energy, wind energy, hydrogen,

geothermal and nuclear are among the ones most focused on to replace the traditional

carbon based sources. We shall discuss wind energy in detail.

Denmark, Spain, Portugal, Germany, Ireland, India, China and the United States

Major are a few users of wind power. In some of these countries it provides nearly 10%

of total electricity produced. In fact wind energy is one of the fastest growing energy

sources worldwide. In the US, the power capacity is growing at very high rates (around

40-50%) and is estimated to provide around 1% of total USA electricity with around

18.000 MW in 2008.

Energy from the wind

Wind is simple air in motion. This is caused by the uneven heating of the earths

surface by the sun. Since the earths surface is made of varying different types of land

and water, it absorbs the suns heat at different rates. During the day, the air above the

land heats up more quickly than the air over water. The warm air over the land expands

and rises, and the heavier, cooler air rushes in to take its place, creating winds. At night,

the winds are reversed because the air cools more rapidly over land than over water.

In the same way, the large atmospheric winds that circle the earth are created

because the land near the earth's equator is heated more by the sun than the land near the

North and South Poles. Today wind energy is mainly used to generate electricity. Wind is

called a renewable energy source because the wind will blow as long as the sun shines.


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History of wind

Since ancient times, people have harnessed the winds energy. Over 5,000 years

ago, the ancient Egyptians used wind to sail ships on the Nile River. Later, people built

windmills to grind wheat and other grains. The earliest known windmills were in Persia

(Iran). These early windmills looked like large paddle wheels. Centuries later, the people

of Holland improved the basic design of the windmill. They gave it propeller-type blades,

still made with sails. Holland is famous for its windmills.

American colonists used windmills to grind wheat and corn, to pump water, and to cut

wood at sawmills. As late as the 1920s, Americans used small windmills to generate

electricity in rural areas without electric service. When power lines began to transport

electricity to rural areas in the 1930s, local windmills were used less and less, though

they can still be seen on some Western ranches.

The oil shortages of the 1970s changed the energy picture for the country and the

world. It created an interest in alternative energy sources, paving the way for the re-entry

of the windmill to generate electricity. In the early 1980s wind energy really took off in

California, partly because of state policies that encouraged renewable energy sources.

Support for wind development has since spread to other states, but California still

produces two times more wind energy as any other state.

How do we turn wind into energy?

Blowing wind spins the blades on a wind turbine, just like a large toy pinwheel.

This device is called a wind turbine and not a windmill. A windmill grinds or mills grain,

or is used to pump water. The blades of the turbine are attached to a hub that is mounted

on a turning shaft. The shaft goes through a gear transmission box where the turning

speed is increased. The transmission is attached to a high speed shaft which turns a

generator that makes electricity.


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If the wind gets too high, the turbine has a brake that will keep the blades from

turning too fast and being damaged. There is still the problem of what to do when the

wind isnt blowing. At those times, other types of power plants must be used to make

electricity. In order for a wind turbine to work efficiently, wind speeds usually must be

above 12 to 14 miles per hour. Wind has to be this speed to turn the turbines fast enough

to generate electricity. The turbines usually produce about 50 to 300 kilowatts of

electricity each. You can light ten 100 watt light bulbs with 1,000 watts. So, a 300

kilowatt (300,000 watts) wind turbine could light up 3,000 light bulbs that use 100 watts!

Capacity factor

Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's annual energy production is never as

much as the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a

year. The ratio of actual productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the

capacity factor. Typical capacity factors are 20-40%, with values at the upper end of the

range in particularly favourable sites.[19] For example, a 1 megawatt turbine with a

capacity factor of 35% will not produce 8,760 megawatt-hours in a year (1x24x365), but

only 1x0.35x24x365 = 3,066 MWh, averaging to 0.35 MW. Online data is available for

some locations and the capacity factor can be calculated from the yearly output.[20][21]

Unlike fueled generating plants, the capacity factor is limited by the inherent properties

of wind. Capacity factors of other types of power plant are based mostly on fuel cost,

with a small amount of downtime for maintenance.Nuclear plants have low incremental

fuel cost, and so are run at full output and achieve a 90% capacity factor. Plants with

higher fuel cost are throttled back to follow load. Gas turbine plants using natural gas as

fuel may be very expensive to operate and may be run only to meetpeak power demand.

A gas turbine plant may have an annual capacity factor of 5-25% due to relatively high

energy production cost.

According to a 2007 Stanford University study published in the Journal of Applied

Meteorology and Climatology, interconnecting ten or more wind farms can allow an

average of 33% of the total energy produced to be used as reliable,baseload electric

power, as long as minimum criteria are met for wind speed and turbine height.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_farmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity_factorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_energy#cite_note-18%23cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_energy#cite_note-19%23cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_energy#cite_note-20%23cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_following_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peaking_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseload_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseload_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_farmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity_factorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_energy#cite_note-18%23cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_energy#cite_note-19%23cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_energy#cite_note-20%23cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_following_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peaking_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseload_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseload_power


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Wind Energy (SWOT)

Wind Energy Strength

Wind energy is economically competitive. With todays rising coal and gas

prices, new wind plants compete favorably against any new electricity generation

source. In fact, when the Colorado Public Service Commission issued a ruling on

the 161-megawatt (MW) wind project in Lamar, Colorado, the commission

determined that wind energy provided the lowest cost of any generation resource

submitted by Xcel Energy. The commission also noted that unlike the other

generation resources considered, the Lamar project avoided a future risk of

increased fuel price.

Wind energy is a valuable crop for the future farmers. Wind farms located in

rural areas generate energy that can be transmitted to load centers in urban areas

via the regional utility grid. The rural areas retain the jobs, as well as land lease

revenue for farmers and ranchers (as much as $4000 per turbine per year). Wind

turbines are compatible with rural land. Crops can be grown and livestock can be

grazed up to the base of the turbine. Wind energy also provides an increased localtax base for rural areas. Prowers County, home to the Lamar project, increased its

local tax base by $32 million.

Unlike most other electricity generation sources, wind turbines dont

consume water. Irrigation and thermal electric generation account for

approximately 77% of U.S. fresh water use. Conventional plants generating

power from fossil and nuclear fuels use large amounts of water for cooling; wind

turbines do not use water. That makes wind energy a great choice for drought-

stricken communities in rural America.

Wind energy is an indigenous, homegrown energy source that contributes to

national security. The United States is the worlds largest importer of oil and


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natural gas, which often originate in troubled areas of the world. The Great Plains

region, which has been dubbed the Saudi Arabia of wind because of its

tremendous untapped wind energy potential, offers homegrown energy, which

increases national security. Reliance on indigenous resources also reduces the

balance of payments that threatens our national economic security. Because of the

distributed aspect of wind energy, it is less vulnerable than large liquefied natural

gas (LNG) ports or large thermoelectric power plants.

Wind energy is inexhaustible and infinitely renewable. Unlike conventional

fossil fuels, wind energy is a renewable and abundant energy that will be available

for future generations.

Wind energy has many environmental benefits. Wind energy produces no

emissions, which means it doesnt contribute to acid rain and snow, global climate

change, smog, regional haze, mercury contamination, water withdrawal, and

particulate-related health effects.

Because wind energys fuel is free, it reduces the risk associated with

volatile fossil fuel prices. Wind displaces electricity that would otherwise beproduced by burning natural gas, thus helping to reduce gas demand and limit gas

price hikes. According to the American Wind Energy Association, the current

U.S. gas shortage amounts to approximately 3 to 4 billion cubic feet (Bcf) per

day. By the end of 2004, wind plants were generating about 17 billion kilowatt-

hours (kWh) annually, or the equivalent of nearly 0.5 Bcf/day of natural gas. In

most areas of the country, every kilowatt-hour of electricity produced by wind

power helps reduce the demand for natural gas used to generate electricity. Lower

demand for natural gas helps mitigate rising costs of consumer heating and

electricity, industrial processes, and chemical and agricultural feedstock.

Wind energy can be used in a variety of applications. Small wind turbines,

alone or as part of a hybrid system, can power homes, businesses, and


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farms/ranches. Wind energy is perfect for remote applications, such as water

pumping, ice making, powering telecommunications sites, and displacing diesel

fuel in villages. Community wind projects include projects for schools, tribes,

municipal utilities, and rural electric cooperatives. Also wind energy is free once

you install the equipment. Requires relatively low maintenance (usually needed

just twice a year for a total of 40 hrs/year). The growing wind energy sector is

creating new jobs in all different kinds of areas, such as in manufacturing,

construction and environmental management services.

Wind Energy Weaknesses

Visual Impact: Wind turbines do affect the visual and aesthetics of the

landscape, especially in pristine untouched environments. The level of a wind

turbine's visual impact depends upon the subjective perception of the individual

and local community in which it is located. How the visual impact of a wind

turbine is perceived depends on factors such as people's attitudes towards the

existing landscape and their attitude to wind turbines and renewable energy in

general. Thus, some people see wind turbines as a visual advantage rather than

disadvantage.

Impact on Birds: Like most tall non-natural structures, wind turbines have anegative impact on birds, which can be killed or injured through collision with the

rotating blades. Turbines are also a disadvantage for migrating, breeding and

nesting birds because they reduce the available bird habitat and have a disturbing

noise. However the overall negative effect of wind turbines is small compared to

the negative impacts on birds from domestic cats, their loss of habitat through

property development, and the effect climate change have. In Australia on

average 2 birds per wind turbine dies per year. It is possible to reduce the negative

impacts on birds by undertaking a proper evaluation of the site. Wind turbines

should be avoided in bird migration corridors and within specific bird habitats and

electrical lines should be put underground.

Impact on Mammals: Wind turbines cause loss of habitat to wildlife due to the

disturbance from its noise, movement of blades, subtle food chain changes and


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electromagnetic fields that in some animal species affects their sonar systems. To

what extent wind turbines causes disadvantages on mammals varies from each

and every location.

Noise Impact: Wind turbines create noise from the turning of the blades. To what

extent this is perceived as an 'unwanted' and disturbing sound is subjective. Some

people do find it very annoying and stressful while others do not mind. The noise

is more likely to be a problem in otherwise quiet rural areas, and not so much of a

problem in urban areas where most the noise of the wind turbine will be masked

by other sources of noise within the city.

Impact on Land Use: Wind turbines do have an impact on the land use,

especially since it is necessary to set up several turbines together in order to

achieve the same amount of electricity as a traditional fossil fuel power plant

would. However, only about 2% of the total area is occupied by the turbine (the

foundation of the turbine is mostly underground) so most of the land will still be

available for other uses.

Television interference: Wind turbines cause interference to nearby televisions

(TV's within a couple of kilometers of the wind turbine). This can be frustrating

for people whom have problem getting a clear image on the TV.

Wind Energy Opportunities

The island of Puerto Rico offers a rare opportunity of establishing areas for the

production of wind energy due to geographic peculiarities. This would benefit Puerto

Rico by reducing pollutants being released into the atmosphere. Recently the petroleum

market has become increasing unstable leading to a raise in prices to a level never before

seen. The government was unable to control the situation because the price of crude oil is

regulated by a foreign market. It is for that reason that we must search for alternative

sources of energy and that these contribute to the protection of the environment and the

use of renewable resources.

Puerto Rico there is space and wind for aero generators, also known as windmills,

to generate electricity with a cost by kilowatt per hour iqual to or less than the price of

generated electricity by fossil fuels. The Monte Grande farm in the Thermoelectrial


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Power station of Exchange is where plans are in motion to establish the second Aeolian

park of Puerto Rico. This is expected to supply electricity to 60 thousand people. The

project, which will include 20 windmills, will be up in running by the year 2012

according to an agreement signed by the Autoridad de Energa Elctrica (AEE) and the

company of winds of Puerto Rico. They will invest 165 million dollars to buy wind

energy at 9.12 cents per kilowatt per hour, 18.58 cents less than the current price.

Wind Energy Threats

In Puerto Rico the most dangerous use of windmills would be their impact on

birds and bats. The birds can run into the windmills. The bats die respiratory failure due

to flying through a zone of low pressure that forms by windmills. Basically the main

objection is the location of windmills where there are migratory paths of protected birds

or birds in danger of extinction. It is recommended that we abstain from known bird

routes but bats migration paths are unknown.

How this topic will affect the island of Puerto Rico?

According to the thesis of Ramos Robles, for a private investor in Puerto Rico, the

sale of wind energy could be $0.0837 or $0.0792 with incentives. The AEE could sell it

for $0.0673 or $0.0648 with incentives. If bonuses are given this could drop to $0.0554

or even a minimum of $0.0549 with incentives. The problem remains, location, due to

competition of terrain for residential, commercial and industrial projects close to the sea.

The electricity produced this way can be sold at eight cents and a half per kilowatt if

incorporated compared to the current 17 to 18 cents paid currently in Puerto Rico.

According to map estimates from the Natural Renewable Energy Laboratory ideal places

for these plants would be at the north and east of the island and specifically Vieques and

Culebra. IN conclusion wind energy could be a very real alternative if agreements are

reached to solve terrain and technological conflicts for the good of Puerto Rico.


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Solar Energy

The Earth receives 174petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at

the upperatmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is

absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's

surface is mostly spread across the visibleandnear-infraredranges with a small part in

the near-ultraviolet.

Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises their

temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing

atmospheric circulation orconvection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where the

temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's

surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies

convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind,cyclones andanti-cyclones.

Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average

temperature of 14 C. Byphotosynthesis green plants convert solar energy intochemicalenergy, which produces food, wood and thebiomass from which fossil fuels are derived.

The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is

approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one

hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ
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per year in biomass. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so

vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the

Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined.

From the table of resources it would appear that solar, wind or biomass would be

sufficient to supply all of our energy needs, however, the increased use of biomass has

had a negative effect on global warming and dramatically increased food prices by

diverting forests and crops into biofuel production. Asintermittent resources, solar and

wind raise other issues.

Applications of solar technology

Average insolation showing land area (small black dots) required to replace the world

primary energy supply with solar electricity. 18 TW is 568 Exajoule (EJ) per year.

Insolation for most people is from 150 to 300 W/m or 3.5 to 7.0 kWh/m/day.

Solar energy refers primarily to the use ofsolar radiation for practical ends. All other

renewable energies other than geothermal and tidal derive their energy from the sun.

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on the

way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar techniques use

photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar

techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing

spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun.

Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are consideredsupply side

technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and

are generally considered demand side technologies.
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Experimental solar power

A solar pond is a pool of salt water (usually 12 m deep) that collects and stores solar

energy. Solar ponds were first proposed by Dr. Rudolph Bloch in 1948 after he came

across reports of a lake in Hungary in which the temperature increased with depth. This

effect was due to salts in the lake's water, which created a "density gradient" that

prevented convection currents. A prototype was constructed in 1958 on the shores of the

Dead Sea nearJerusalem. The pond consisted of layers of water that successively

increased from a weak salt solution at the top to a high salt solution at the bottom. This

solar pond was capable of producing temperatures of 90 C in its bottom layer and had an

estimated solar-to-electric efficiency of two percent.

Thermoelectric, or "thermovoltaic" devices convert a temperature difference between

dissimilar materials into an electric current. First proposed as a method to store solar

energy by solar pioneer Mouchout in the 1800s, thermoelectrics reemerged in the Soviet

Union during the 1930s. Under the direction of Soviet scientist Abram Ioffe a

concentrating system was used to thermoelectrically generate power for a 1 hp engine.

Thermogenerators were later used in the US space program as an energy conversion

technology for powering deep space missions such as Cassini,Galileo and Viking.

Research in this area is focused on raising the efficiency of these devices from 78% to

1520%.

Solar Energy SWOT

Solar Energy Strengths

Solar panels give off no pollution, the only pollution produced as a result of solar

panels is the manufacturing of these devices in factories, transportation of the

goods, and installation.

The production of energy from the use of fossil and some renewable fuels (e.g.

wind turbines) can be noisy, yet solar energy produces electricity very quietly.
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The ability to harness electricity in remote locations that are not linked to a

national grid. A prime example of this is in space, where satellites are powered by

high efficiency solar cells.

The installation of solar panels in remote locations is usually much more cost

effective than laying the required high voltage wires.

Solar energy can be very efficient in a large area of the globe, and new

technologies allow for a more efficient energy production on overcast/dull days.

Solar panels can be installed on top of many rooftops, which eliminates the

problem of finding the required space for solar panel placement.

Another great pro of solar energy is the cost. Although the initial investment of

solar cells may be high, once installed, they provide a free source of electricity,

which will pay off over the coming years.

The use of solar energy to produce electricity allows the user to become less

dependent on the worlds fossil fuel supplies.

Solar Energy Weakness

The major con of solar energy is the initial cost of solar cells. Currently, prices of

highly efficient solar cells can be above $1000, and some households may need

more than one. This makes the initial installation of solar panels very costly.

Solar energy is only able to generate electricity during daylight hours. This means

for around half of each day, solar panels are not producing energy for your home.

The weather can affect the efficiency of solar cells.

Pollution can be a con of solar energy, as pollution levels can affect a solar cells

efficiency, this would be a major con for businesses or industry wishing to install

solar panels in heavily polluted areas, such as cities.


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Solar Energy Opportunities

Naturally this growth has been accompanied by the creation of new jobs

Training and Education

Sell electricity back to the Grid: if your system is producing more electricity than

you need, or when you can't use it, someone else can use it - and you could make

a bit of money.

Solar Energy Threats

Solar panel production creates many of the same toxic byproducts as those found

in semiconductor production, including silicon tetrachloride, dusts, and

greenhouse gases like sulfur hexafluoride. Which cause dangers to health.


Solar Power in Puerto Rico is a great way to reduce the cost of electricity in

residential homes due to the high cost of combustible. With this system people can

control the use of electricity even free themselves of the government electrical service.

You can also sell electricity back to the Gridif your system is producing more electricity

than you need, or when you can't use it, someone else can use it - and you could make a

bit of money.


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Nuclear Energy

As of 2005, nuclear power provided 2.1% of the world's energy and 15% of the

world's electricity, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for 56.5% of

nuclear generated electricity. As of 2007, the IAEA reported there are 439 nuclear power

reactors in operation in the world, operating in 31 countries. In 2007, nuclear powers

share of global electricity generation dropped to 14%. According to the International

Atomic Energy Agency, the main reason for this was an earthquake in western Japan on

16 July 2007, which shut down all seven reactors at theKashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear

Power Plant. There were also several other reductions and "unusual outages" experiencedin Korea and Germany. Also, increases in the load factorfor the current fleet of reactors

appear to have plateaued.

The United States produces the most nuclear energy, with nuclear power providing 19%

of the electricity it consumes, while France produces the highest percentage of its
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electrical energy from nuclear reactors78% as of 2006. In the European Union as a

whole, nuclear energy provides 30% of the electricity. Nuclear energy policy differs

between European Union countries, and some, such asAustria, Estonia, and Ireland, have

no active nuclear power stations. In comparison, France has a large number of these

plants, with 16 multi-unit stations in current use.

In the US, while the Coal and Gas Electricity industry is projected to be worth $85 billion

by 2013, Nuclear Power generators are forecast to be worth $18 billion.

Many military and some civilian (such as some icebreaker) ships usenuclear marine

propulsion, a form ofnuclear propulsion. A few space vehicles have been launched using

full-fledged nuclear reactors: the SovietRORSAT series and the AmericanSNAP-10A.

International research is continuing into safety improvements such aspassively safe

plants, the use ofnuclear fusion, and additional uses of process heat such ashydrogen

production (in support of a hydrogen economy), fordesalinating sea water, and for use in

district heating systems.

Life cycle of Nuclear Fuel

The Nuclear Fuel Cycle begins when uranium is mined, enriched, and

manufactured into nuclear fuel, (1) which is delivered to a nuclear power plant.

After usage in the power plant, the spent fuel is delivered to a reprocessing plant (2) or to

a final repository (3) for geological disposition.

In reprocessing 95% of spent fuel can be recycled to be returned to usage in a power

plant (4).

A nuclear reactor is only part of the life-cycle for nuclear power. The process starts with

mining. Uranium mines are underground, open-pit, orin-situ leachmines. In any case,

the uranium ore is extracted, usually converted into a stable and compact form such as

yellowcake, and then transported to a processing facility. Here, the yellowcake is

converted to uranium hexafluoride, which is then enriched using various techniques. At

this point, the enriched uranium, containing more than the natural 0.7% U-235, is used to
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make rods of the proper composition and geometry for the particular reactor that the fuel

is destined for. The fuel rods will spend about 3 operational cycles (typically 6 years total

now) inside the reactor, generally until about 3% of their uranium has been fissioned,

then they will be moved to a spent fuel pool where the short lived isotopes generated by

fission can decay away. After about 5 years in a cooling pond, the spent fuel is

radioactively and thermally cool enough to handle, and it can be moved to dry storage

casks or reprocessed.

Boiling Nuclear Superheater

The decommissioned Boiling Nuclear Superheater (BONUS) reactor was developed as a

prototype nuclear power plant to investigate the technical and economic feasibility of the

integral boiling-superheating concept. This small-scale nuclear reactor produced

saturated steam in the central portion of the reactor core, superheated it in four

surrounding superheater sections of the same core, and then used the superheated steam

in a direct loop to drive a turbine generator. It was one of only two boiling-water

superheater reactors ever developed in the United States. The reactor was designed to be

large enough to evaluate the major features of the integral boiling-superheating concept

realistically without the high construction and operating costs associated with a large

plant. Construction of the began in 1960 through a combined effort of the U.S. Atomic

Energy Commission and Puerto Rico Water Resources Authority. The reactor first

achieved a controlled nuclear chain reaction on April 13, 1964. It underwent a series of

criticality tests and then was operated experimentally at various power levels, first as a

boiler and later as an integral boiler-superheater. Operation at full power (50 megawatts

of thermal energy) and full temperature (900 F [482 C] steam) was achieved in

September 1965, and tests demonstrated satisfactory operation at 10 percent over power

in November 1965. Operation of the BONUS reactor was terminated in June 1968because of technical difficulties and the ensuing need for high-cost modifications. The

Puerto Rico Water Resources Authority decommissioned the reactor between 1969 and

1970.

Nuclear Energy SWOT
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Nuclear Energy Strength:

The Earth has limited supplies of coal and oil. Nuclear power plants could still

produce electricity after coal and oil become scarce.

Coal and oil burning plants pollute the air. Well-operated nuclear power plants do

not release contaminants into the environment.

Nuclear power plants need less fuel than ones which burn fossil fuels. One ton of

uranium produces more energy than is produced by several million tons of coal or

several million barrels of oil.

Nuclear Energy Weakness:

Nuclear power already delivers less energy globally than renewable energy, and

the share will continue to decrease in the coming years.

Resources are large but depletable

Use increasingly scarce of water

Need liability insurance exemption

Nuclear Energy Opportunities:

New approaches and opportunities with labor

Different business models can and have been chosen by investors; in all cases

financing can be ensured without state subsidies.

Social benefits of nuclear power include direct employment and positive impacts

of stable and predictable cost of electricity on the economy.

Nuclear energy also supports technological and scientific development.

Nuclear Energy Threaths:

Safety: No reactor in the world is inherently safe. All operational reactors have inherent

safety flaws, which cannot be eliminated by safety upgrading. Highly radioactive spent

fuel requires constant cooling. If this fails, it could lead to a catastrophic release of

radioactivity. They are also highly vulnerable to deliberate acts of sabotage, including
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terrorist attack.

Waste: From the moment uranium is mined nuclear waste on a massive scale is produced.

There is no secure, risk free way to store nuclear waste. No country in the world has a

solution for high-level waste that stays radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years.

The least damaging option at this current time is for waste to be stored above ground, in

dry storage at the site of origin, but this option also presents major challenges and the

threats.

Weapons proliferation: The possession of nuclear weapons by the US, Russia, France,

the UK and China has encouraged the further proliferation of nuclear technology and

materials. Every state that has a nuclear power capability, has the means to obtain nuclear

material usable in a nuclear weapon. Basically this means that the 44 nuclear power states

could become 44 nuclear weapons states. Many nations that have active commercial

nuclear power programs, began their research with two objectives - electricity generation

and the option to develop nuclear weapons. Also nuclear programs based on reprocessing

plutonium from spent fuel have dramatically increased the risk of proliferation as the

creation of more plutonium, means more nuclear waste which in turn means more

materials available for the creation of dirty bombs.

Radiation: Radiation doses of about 200 rems cause radiation sickness, but only if

this large amount of radiation is received all at once. The average person receives

about 200 millirems a year from everyday objects and outer space.


Nuclear Power in Puerto Rico would help a lot because of all of the removable

resources is the one to gain more power. One nuclear plant would be enough to give

power to a few houses. The only problem is that if the nuclear plant has a trouble it could

be very dangerous to nearby places and it could actually pollute the land it was placed on.
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Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet, from

radioactive decay of minerals, and from solar energy absorbed at the surface. It has been

used for space heating and bathing since ancient roman times, but is now better known

for generating electricity. Geothermal heat originates from Earth's fiery consolidation of

dust and gas over 4 billion years ago. At earth's core - 4,000 miles deep - temperatures

may reach over 9,000 degrees F. About 10 GW of geothermal electric capacity is

installed around the world as of 2007, generating 0.3% of global electricity demand. An

additional 28 GW of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating,

space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications.

Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, and environmentally friendly, but has

previously been geographically limited to areas neartectonic plate boundaries. Recent

technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable
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resources, especially for direct applications such as home heating. Geothermal wells tend

to release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are much

lower than those of conventional fossil fuels. As a result, this technology has the potential

to help mitigate global warming if widely deployed.

Prince Piero Ginori Conti tested the first geothermal generator on 4 July 1904, at the

Larderello dry steam field in Italy. The largest group of geothermalpower plants in the

world is located at The Geysers, a geothermal field in California, United States. As of

2004, five countries El Salvador, Kenya,the Philippines, Iceland, and Costa Rica

generate more than 15% of their electricity from geothermal sources.

How is electricity generated using geothermal energy?

Ingeothermal power plants steam, heat or hot water from geothermal reservoirs provides

the force that spins the turbine generators and produces electricity. The used geothermal

water is then returned down an injection wellinto the reservoir to be reheated, to maintain

pressure, and to sustain the reservoir.

There are three kinds ofgeothermal power plants. The kind we build depends on the

temperatures and pressures of a reservoir.

1. A "dry'" steam reservoir produces steam but very little water. The steam is piped

directly into a "dry" steam power plantto provide the force to spin the turbine

generator. The largest dry steam field in the world is The Geysers, about 90 miles
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north of San Francisco. Production of electricity started at The Geysers in 1960, at

what has become the most successful alternative energy project in history.

2. A geothermal reservoir that produces mostly hot water is called a "hot water

reservoir" and is used in a "flash" power plant. Water ranging in temperature from

300 - 700 degrees F is brought up to the surface through the production well where,

upon being released from the pressure of the deep reservoir, some of the water flashes

into steam in a 'separator.' The steam then powers the turbines.

3. A reservoir with temperatures between 250 - 360 degrees F is not hot enough to flash

enough steam but can still be used to produce electricity in a "binary" power plant. In

a binary system the geothermal water is passed through a heat exchanger, where its

heat is transferred into a second (binary) liquid, such as isopentane, that boils at a

lower temperature than water. When heated, the binary liquid flashes to vapor, which,

like steam, expands across and spins the turbine blades. The vapor is then

recondensed to a liquid and is reused repeatedly. In this closed loop cycle, there are

no emissions to the air.

Direct Application

Approximately seventy countries made direct use of a total of 270 PJ of

geothermal heatingin 2004. More than half of this energy was used for space heating,

and a third was used for heated pools. The remainder was used for industrial and

agricultural applications. The global installed capacity was 28 GW, but capacity factors

tend to be low around 20% since the heat is mostly needed in the winter. The above

figures include 88 PJ of space heating extracted by an estimated million geothermal heat

pumps with a total capacity of 15 GW. Global geothermal heat pump capacity is growing

by 10% annually.
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Direct application of geothermal heat for space heating is far more efficient than

electricity generation and has less demanding temperature requirements. It may come

from waste heat supplied by co-generationfrom a geothermal electrical plant or from

smaller wells or heat exchangers buried in the shallow ground. As a result it is viable

over a much greater geographical range than electricity generation. Where natural hot

springs are available, the water may be piped directly into radiators. If the shallow ground

is hot but dry, earth tubes ordown hole heat exchangersmay be used without a heat

pump. But even in areas where the shallow ground is too cold to provide comfort

directly, it is still warmer than the winter air. Seasonal variations in ground temperature

diminish and disappear completely below 10m of depth. That heat can be extracted with a

geothermal heat pumpmore efficiently than it can be generated by conventional furnaces.

Geothermal heat pumps can be used essentially anywhere. There are a wide variety of

applications for cheap geothermal heat. The cities ofReykjavkandAkureyri pipe hot

water from geothermal plants under roads and pavements to melt snow.District heating

applications use networks of piped hot water to heat buildings in whole communities.

Geothermal desalination has been demonstrated.

Environmental Impact

Geothermal fluids drawn from the deep earth may carry a mixture of gases with them,

notably carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. When released to the environment, these

pollutants contribute to global warming, acid rain, and noxious smells in the vicinity of

the plant. Existing geothermal electric plants emit an average of 90-120 kg of CO2 per

MWh of electricity, a small fraction of the emission intensityof conventional fossil fuel

plants. Some are equipped with emissions-controlling systems that reduces the exhaust of

acids and volatiles.
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In addition to dissolved gases, hot water from geothermal sources may contain trace

amounts of dangerous elements such as mercury, arsenic, and antimony which, if

disposed of into rivers, can render their water unsafe to drink. Geothermal plants can

theoretically inject these substances, along with the gases, back into the earth, in a form

ofcarbon sequestration. Construction of the power plants can adversely affect land

stability in the surrounding region. This is mainly a concern withEnhanced Geothermal

Systems, where water is injected into hot dry rock where no water was before.

Geothermal has minimal land use requirements; existing geothermal plants use 1-8 acres

per megawatt MW versus 5-10 acres per MW for nuclear operations and 19 acres per

MW for coal power plants..

Geothermal Energy SWOT

Strength of Geothermal Energy:

Clean. Geothermal power plants, like wind and solar power plants, do not have to

burn fuels to manufacture steam to turn the turbines. Generating electricity withgeothermal energy helps to conserve nonrenewable fossil fuels, and by decreasing theuse of these fuels, we reduce emissions that harm our atmosphere. There is no smokyair around geothermal power plants -- in fact some are built in the middle of farmcrops and forests, and share land with cattle and local wildlife.

For ten years, Lake County California, home to five geothermal electric power plants,
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has been the first and only county to meet the most stringent governmental air qualitystandards in the U.S.

Easy on the land. The land area required for geothermal power plants is smaller permegawatt than for almost every other type of power plant. Geothermal installations

don't require damming of rivers or harvesting of forests -- and there are no mineshafts, tunnels, open pits, waste heaps or oil spills.

Reliable. Geothermal power plants are designed to run 24 hours a day, all year. Ageothermal power plant sits right on top of its fuel source. It is resistant tointerruptions of power generation due to weather, natural disasters or political riftsthat can interrupt transportation of fuels.

Flexible. Geothermal power plants can have modular designs, with additional unitsinstalled in increments when needed to fit growing demand for electricity.

Weakness of Geothermal Energy:

Lack of resource information

Relatively long lead time from concept to production

Perceived high cost

Small base of experienced professionals and equipment

High upfront costs

Geographic distance from population centers and transmission infrastructure

Opportunities of Geothermal Energy

Helps Developing Countries Grow. Geothermal projects can offer all of the above

benefits to help developing countries grow without pollution. And installations in

remote locations can raise the standard of living and quality of life by bringing

electricity to people far from "electrified" population centers.

Keeps Dollars at Home. Money does not have to be exported to import fuel for

geothermal power plants. Geothermal "fuel'" - like the sun and the wind - is always

where the power plant is; economic benefits remain in the region and there are no fuel

price shocks.

Threats of Geothermal Energy:

Possible environmental dangers posed by geothermal energy are:


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Land subsidence;

Production of waste water with high mineral content;

Disposal of hot water produced in the power conversion process;

Release of noxious gases, such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia and boron into the

atmosphere, and large amounts of water vapor;

The amount of land taken up and noise produced are substantial.

How will this topic affect the island of Puerto Rico?

Geothermal Power in Puerto Rico wouldnt have a lot of progress because

the process to obtain its a very expensive one. Also its very hard to process it

and to get the energy to spread across the island. Since by every place we have the

ground to have this kind of energy we would have to have a plant each to spread

the energy.

What kind of effect green energy will have on you as a future electrical engineer?

As a computer or electrical engineer this opens employment opportunities for

systems to monitor and maintain the plants. Also we must consider options and ideas to

improve and assistant this alternative. An example would be finding the most efficient

way to harness this energy in times of extremely high winds and low breezes. And to

insure materials that would be efficient and resistant to the energy produced.


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Conclusion:

In comparing the various forms of energysolar, wind, geothermal and nuclear

there are pros and cons to each in such a unique way that no overall quantitative

assessment can be made. What is most pertinent for the sake of the environmentand for

species health. Using renewable energy would eliminate this problem entirely. However,

the needs of peopleespecially those in developing countriesmust be mixed into the

equation for a realistic result to be obtained. When political decisions are made, they are

typically made to satisfy none other than those implementing themthe people. So,

whether this is just or not, energy solutions will tend to cater to the needs of the country


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in question. If the source seems that it will be unreliable, and that it may not be able to

give enough power to an entire population, then the country will opt against such energy

usage. However, renewable energy does offer a great alternative to us. It is the answer

for energy crisis. It is the answer to global warming. It is the answer to a more

comfortable life. All but not least, renewable energy is our future.

Introduction

Green energy is the term used to describe sources of energy that are considered to be

environmentally friendly and non-polluting, such as geothermal, wind, solar, and hydro.

Sometimes nuclear poweris also considered a green energy source. Green energy sources

are often considered "green" because they are perceived to lowercarbon emissions and

create lesspollution.

Green energy is commonly thought of in the context ofelectricity, mechanical power,

heating and cogeneration. Consumers, businesses, and organizations may purchase green
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energy in order to support further development, help reduce the environmental impacts of

conventional electricity generation, and increase their nations energy independence.

Renewable energy certificates (Green certificates orgreen tags) have been one way for

consumers and businesses to support green energy.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank God first of all for giving me strength to do my part of the job for

this project, I would like to also thank my friends for helping me and giving me support.
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Jeniffer L. Rivera AyusoY00-05-4425

Recommendations:

My recommendation is that we should give extra points to the person that is going to

present the project.


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Jeniffer L Rivera AyusoY00-05-4425

green enrgy

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