bullying asperger s

8/7/2019 Bullying Asperger s

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Using a Team Approachto AddressBullying of Students with Asperger's

Syndrome in Activity-based SettingsMary Jo Garcia Biggs, Cynthia Simpson, and Mark D. Gaus

Th e rate of bullying am ong individuals with disabilitiesis alarming. Because ofthe socialand motor deficiencies that individuals with Asperger's syndrome (AS) often display, theyare frequently targets of buUying.The physical education setting often consists of a largernumber of students than the typical academic in structio nal setting. Th is increasein thenumber of children may foster a breeding ground for bullying of students with limitedphysical abilities or poor social skills. Understanding ASand bullying will enable socialworkers and educators to engage in team problem solving to teach children with ASthe

skills needed to address bullying issues if they encounter them.This approach is particularlybeneficial to those students with AS being educated in the general physical educationsetting. T he team approach is most effective when a social worker takes an active role inthe process.

K EY W O R D S : activity-hased settings; Asperger's syndrome; bullying; team approa ch

I am often asked if and how I was bullied atschool. It is difficult to answer because notonly was I bullied but often I was seen as the

bully. People perceived me as a scary bullybecause I didn't know what appropriate playwas since no one ever told or taught me. Ialso tended to play more imaginative gamesand less physical or strenuous games. W he nIwasn't viewed asthe buUy, I was be ing bulliedby o ther kids. Usuallyit was verbal commentsabout m y weight, my slow speed, or so methin gelse equally cruel. I was also bullied becauseI would stem in and out of class, and they

would find a big kid making funny soundsand movements with his hands disturbing.Theproblem was, in m ost of my classes my tea cherswere either too busy or far away to deal withthe bullying. Sometimes they even alloweditknowingly! It was these classes whe re I didn'tcare and would try to escape the situation,(personal comm unica tion with J.Williams, co -teacher. Hum ble Independen t School D istrict,Hu m ble, Texas, January 4, 2009)

The ra te of b u l l y in g a m o n g i n d i v i d u -

they w ere bu l l i ed . Th e re are several reasons forthis . Individuals with AS often can be naive , beover ly t rus t ing , and have a strong desire to be

inc luded (Blacher&

Lauderda le , 2008) .

BULLYING AND STUDENTS WITH AS

As previously noted, the rate of bullying among

students is alarming. Results of a study con-

ducted in 2001 on 16,000 sixth- to lOth-graders

from schools within the United States indicted

that approximately 30 percent reported moder-

ate or frequent involvement in bullying (Nansel

et al., 2001).The same study showed that male

students were more likely to be either victimsor perpetrators in the bullying experience. The

reality is that the "effects of bullying may linger

long into the victims' adulthood" (San Antonio

& Salzfass,2007,p.32).Most educators recognize

the need to address bullying issues and have

created antibullying programs to increase a safe

school environment. However, students with

disabilities, particularly those with AS, are oftenvictims of bullying, and their special needs are

seldom addressed in such programs.


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to their (a) lack of understanding of the rulesof social behavior, (b) lack of awareness ofaccepted social protocol, (c) lack of commonsense, (d) propensity to misinterpret socialcues and unspoken messages, and (e) display

of socially unaccepted responses. (Simpson &Myles, 1998,p. 149)

These specific deficits may result in socialisolation or aggressive behaviors. If aggressivebehaviors are displayed by students with AS,they may "be easy targets for bullies and peerderision" (Simpson & Myles, 1998, p. 150).AntibuUying program seldom address the needsof those students identified as having specificdisabilities such as AS.

Students with disabilities are often targeted asvictims because of their lack of social skills andlow self-confidence. "Children with disabilitiesare at least twic eas likely to be bullied than theirnon-disabled peers" (Ma rini, Fairbairn,& Zuber,2001,p. 175). Supp orting this notion,Wainscot,Naylor, SutclifFe, Tantam, and Williams (2008)found that individuals with AS were bullied on

a regular basis and were buUied m uch m ore thantheir peers. Du rin g breaks and lunchtime, thesestudents were often alone. "Th ere are co m m onreports of peers who have bullied and provokedindividuals wi th Asperger's syndrom e to engagein inappropriate behaviors" (Simpson & M yles,1998, p. 150).The acts of bullying that childrenwith AS often experience can lead to a poorself-image and clinical levels of depression oranxiety (Blacher & Lauderdale, 2008 ). Aalsma

and Brown (2008) related the victimization tosignificant psychosocial effects thro ug ho ut ad o-lescence and in to y oung adulthood . These actsmay lead to the individual that is being bulliedwishing no t to attend school (Myklebust, 2002 ).This, along w ith coexisting physical deficits thatchildren wit h AS mayhave, leads one t o assumethat these same children wiU not want to par-ticipate in physical education or extracurricularsports activities.

PHYSICAL DEFICITS AND AS

did. I always thought that my skill level wasthe same, but once I realized this, I started towithdraw. Nobody really encouraged me touse the skills that I had and several times, myteachers would just let me sit out and not par-

ticipate. I think they m eant well, but this onlyisolated me more, (personal communicationwith J.Williams, January 4, 2009)

Children with AS are often described as dis-playing motor clumsiness and awkwardness.In addition, it has been reported that childrenwith AS have poor motor ability and socialdeficits.As coexisting conditions, these deficitsmay contribute to difficulties in the physicaleducation setting.

The physical ability of children with AS isoften lower than that of their peer group, andmotor impairments have been found to existwithin the autism spectrum (Jansiewicz et al.,2006). It is uncommon for children withAS topossess highly athletic skills, as these childrenrarely display general gross motor precocity(Silverman & Weinfield, 2007 ). Green et al.

(2002) found that children with AS had motorimpairments, consistent with various studiesindicating that children with AS have a highprevalence of clumsiness. In this research, allparticipants with AS were diagnosed as havingmotor impairments. Freitag, Kleser, Schneider,and von Gontard (2007) added that individualswith high-functioning autism and AS had im-pairments in dynamic balance and diadochoki-nesis. In addition, many children w ithAS often

have a coexisting condition of developmentalcoo rdinatio n disorder (Elder et al., 20 06).

Along with the deficits in motor skills thatchildren with AS may display, by definition,children with AS possess social deficits. Thesesocial deficits, paired with physical deficits, cancreate even more challenges for students withAS when they participate in the physical edu-cation setting. Physical performan ce and socialinteraction often work together as childrenexperience opportunities to play and com-municate with peers through various games


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difficulties in participating in age-expectedinteractions such as play and large-group in-struction (physical education settings).

This information is of particular interestto those individuals interested in examining

relationships involving bullying in the physicaleducation setting.The ability to perform m oto rskills ata com petent levelis necessary as they areoften the underlying components necessary tobe successful in m any of the games and activitiesused in the physical education setting. Childrenwith AS often look clumsy and uncoordinatedwhen performing simple tasks such as walk-ing or catch ing a ball (Rin eha rt et al., 200 6).Children with unsteady gait, slow movements,

or less stamina are often viewed by bullies asbeing weak and become the target or verbalor physical abuse (Flynt & Morton, 2004).Tofurther exacerbate this issue,

it appears that individuals with developmentaldisabilities are keenly aware of their limitedcapability toaccess and assert power or controlover their lives.This raises serious issues aboutthe implication and importance of makingsure there is a effective intervention to addressthese types of peer harassment. (Marini et al.,2001, p.188)

It is important that the physical educationinstructors do everything necessary to control,deter, and stop all bullying from occurringwithin the setting.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION ANDEXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES

I never participated in any youth sports, al-thoug h m y parents encouraged me to. I thinkthis caused m e to miss an imp ortan t part of mychildh ood and if I could go back,I would giveit a try, even ifI wasn't that good.I really n eede dthe support of people outside of my family toencourag e me to take chances and get involvedoutside of school, (personal communication

with J.Williams, January 4,2009 )

limit that child in what he or she can participatein outside of the school setting. Community-based programs are of a com petitive nature, andthis is a definite b arrier for individuals w ith AS(Pan & Frey, 2006 ). Parents of children wi th AS

may not seek out opportunities for their childto pa rticipate in outside activities. Th is is po s-sibly due to fears of social exclusion by peersand awareness thata child's physical abilities maylimit successful participation in the activity athand . Unfo rtunately, this reahty is coup led wit hthe fact that these individuals are often foundineligible for programs such as Paralympics andSpecial Oly mp ics, placing them in a situation inwhich they are indetermin ate abo ut the various

extracurricular components available in society(Pan & Frey, 2006).

"Physical activity patterns in youth with[autism spectrum disorders] are probably dif-ferent from peers who are afforded greateropportunities to be active" (Pan & Frey, 2006,p. 598). Although it has been disputed thatmotor delays exist in students with AS, thereappears to be evidence indicating that this is apotential problem (Myles & Simpson, 2002).In assessing physical activity of children withautism, it has been note d that o ne of the majorconcerns is that this population needs moreopportunities to participate in extracurricularactivities adap ted to thei r various n eeds . "It isdifficult for parents to provide transportation,pay fees, or attend events when there are fewprograms for wh ich the ir children w ith [autismspectrum disorders] can participate" (Reid,

2005, p. 6).Very few extracu rricular programshave staff trained in the specific needs of chil-dren with AS. Families may find themselvesseeking additional support services (indicatedlater) to assist them in finding resources andprograms that have the facilities and capabili-ties to successfully include children withAS inextracurricular programs.

SUPPORT SERVICES

My personal philosophy is that Autism is nota disease that ne eds to be c ured ; rathe r it is a


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If I could tell physical education teachersone thing, it would be to understand thatwe m ay no t be interested in teamsports orcertain kinds of activities, but thatdoesn't

mean we don't want to do anything.

adults, (personal communication with J.W il-liams,January 4, 2009)

In the school setting, the social worker's"specialty in social work is oriented towardhelping students make satisfactory adjustmentsand coordinating and influencing the effortsof the school, the family, and the communityto achieve this goal" (NASW, 2002). Using amultidisciplinary approach, a social worker canarrange a team meeting to include the student,physical education teacher, special educationteacher, general education teachers, physicaltherapist, occup ational therapist, campus ad m in-istrator, parents, school cou nselor, and any o the rcom mun ity m em ber or individual the student orparent w ould like to invite. T he facilitated teammee ting would be designed to develop interv en-tion plans for the student. Each discipline wouldidentify the ir role with th e studen t, describe t hestrengths of the student, and present a theo-retical framew ork of their discipline. W h en allmembers understand and accept the theoreticalframeworks and perception s of othe r individualson the team, common ground is more easily

established. T he various tho ug ht processes helpto shape the most a ppropriate approaches, withdirection from the student.

If I could tell physical education teachers onething, it would be to understand that we maynot be interested in team sports or certain kindsof activities, but that doesn't mean we don'twant to do anything. Forme, I had to fmd theactivities I enjoy; they weren't thesame as whatothers wanted for me. (personal comm unica-tion with J. Williams, January4, 2009)

to ensure the student's safety and make him oher feel welcomed by teachers and peers. It wilbring about the most effective intervention torely on the acco untability of those designing th eapproach. Th e intervention must also addres

the student's levels of cognitive understandingaround w hich the intervention will be designedand implem ented. Th e type of interventiondesigned for the student must be presented toand developed with, that student.

The physical education teacher can workwith the student in designing a fitness programthat will improve skills and enhance the physical education e xperie nce.T he special educa tionteacher and adapted physical education teachehave the expertise in adapting or modifying instruction. Usinga strengths-based approach, thesocial worker can help the student to recognizehis or her skills and act as an advocate for thestudent regarding difficult decisions on his orher level of com mi tme nt to the established plan(Garcia Biggs, Simp son, & Gaus, 2009).

The teachers can be involved in a range oftopics related to the intervention, such as the

monitoring of peer relationships. Administrators can provide support in areas such as policydevelopment, enforcement, and the level osupport and commitment needed to ensuresuccess of the intervention. Specifically, thissupport can include the "implementation ofazero tolerance policy for bullying within schoolimits and support through classroom visits andprivate m eetings as ne ed ed " (Garcia Biggs et al200 9, p. 41). Parental involvem ent can assist in

creating a mo re positive com mitm ent to h elpingstudents withAS succeed. A com mitm ent fromall those involved in the child's instruction cancreate a new level of communication, openingthe door for students and families to feel lessahenated in the intervention process.

DISCUSSION

M ost prac titioners, educators, and parents agrethat there is a trem end ous nee d to address bullying behavio r. Th ere is a general impressionthat bullying in schools is being addressed by


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to be a pervasive occurrence that leaves last-ing impressions long after the initial incident.Consequently, it is imperative to curtail thoseoccurrences and provide an intervention earlyin the students' school careers.

Students withA S often experience difficultywhen interacting with peers in the physicaleducation setting.This, paired with poo r m oto rcoordination, such as unsteady gait, and socialdeficits, results in a higher frequency of bul-lying by their peers. In the earlier statementsby James Williams, a recent college graduatewith A S, he rep orted that although his familysought opportunities for him to participate inoutside activities, he wished others would havebeen equally encouraging. Had James wantedto participate in extracurricular activities, thoseoppo rtunities m ight have been limited, becauseoften, specific oppo rtunities for students w ith A Sare not readily accessible.The op portu nities thatdo exist are those de veloped for typically dev el-oping peers. Social deficits and possible motordeficits may pose a challenge for students withA S wh o w ant to participate in these activitiesat a successful level.

Team ApproachA s advocates for students withA S, school liaisons,such as a school social worker and the indi-vidualized educational plan (IEP) team, couldseek out opp ortunities for students with A S,such as James, to participate in extracurricularactivities adapted for various needs by enlistingthe help of the com mun ity. Th e school social

worker is the ideal person to coordina te with thecase manager and other IEP team members todevelop a team approach to address and designeffective interve ntions w ith and fora child withA S. There should be a coordination of servicesthat address social skills interventions to nourishand promote the social skills development ofstudents withA S as well as services tha t nu rtur eskill development.

The school social worker can augment edu-cational and community supports to provide asafe educational environment for students with

to be active participants in their own serviceplanning, has proven beneficial in the successof interv entio n plans. A n effective approac hshould include commitments from the student,school social worker, case manager, physical

education teacher, special education teacher,general education teachers, physical therapist,occupational therapist, administrators, parents,and the community.

Intervention StrategiesSeveral interventions can be used to reducecircumstances o f bullying children w ith specificdisabilities, includ ing A S. Interve ntions shouldtarget no t only prev entio n strategies, but alsodesigning interventions for perpetrators andteaching victims the social skills needed toremain calm and rep ort bullying events. Theseinterventions can be effective only if they areimplemented by all members involved in theplan ning p rocess. A few strategies that can b eused in the educational setting to reduce bully-ing acts or assist students withAS in addressingbullies in the educational setting are identified

in Table 1.Designation of effective interventions for chil-dren diagno sed w ith A S may be established byseeking com m on g round am ong the disciplines.A social worke r, wh ose founda tion involves astrengths-based perspective, may be the miss-ing link in creating a common thread amongthe student, physical education teacher, specialeducation teacher, general education teachers,physical therapist, occupational therapist, ad-

ministrators, parents, and c om mun ity. Th ere isa need to embrace expertise among the variousdisciplines in the school setting to improve theoverall schoo l climate, particularly to enh anc ethe social climate of physical education class-rooms (and students) in general.

Effective interventions may be devised bythe collaborative team to reduce the instancesof bullying in the educational setting, includ-ing those instances involving students w ithA S.Re cog nizing that students with A S are moresusceptible to becoming victims of bullying


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Table 1: Bullying Interven tions

1. Provide staff development to school personnel so that they can be aware ofthe specific needs of children with Asperger's syn-drome (AS) in relation to bullying. The staff development should focus on not only the characteristics ofbullies and victims, butalso the prevalence and types of bullying that occur. A strong emphasis should be placed on how individuals with social deficitsare at a greater tisk of bullying. Involve community leaders in staff development when addressing the specific needs of studentswith disabilities in relation to extracurricular and community activities. Teachers can be a student with AS's strongest advocatewhen addressing on-campus bullying.2. Educators should enforce a no tolerance for bullying policy for all students and enforce the policy to the full extent.

3. Establish a buddy system to assist the child withAS. This will allow for another individual with higher social Functioning toidentify "life-threatening" bullying instances. This individual should be selected by an adult, with input from the student withAS.

4. Teach children with AS specific areas where they are most vulnerable to being bullied, identifying these locations will help thstudent with AS to avoid instances in which limited visibility by adults exists. Once these specific areas are indentified, the childwith AS can be instructed about ways to avoid these areas and be provided with alternative sites where he or she is less likely toencounter bullying acts.

5. Role play bullying situations in which the student withAS is specifically taught to respond to bullying. Prevention of bullyingis a primary goal, but it cannot be relied on in every instance. Children with a limited ability to understand social cues maymisinterp ret acts of teasing and bullying as attem pts by peers to establish friendships. Reading social cues can pose difficulty forchildren withAS and should be practiced on a regular basis.6. Teach children withAS that safety exists in numbers. Students should be encouraged to play in areas near peers ot where largenumbers of students are present. Children with AS should be encouraged to participate in supervised activities. Supervised activties not only provide a safe house from bullying, but also create opportunity for social interactions.

7. ff acts of bullying take place, they must be investigated. Simply asking the child to ignore verbal taunts is not addressing theissue at hand. Students who are perpetrators in bullying acts (toward students with or without disabilities) must receive conse-quences as outlined by the student code of conduct.

8. When developing games and activities for use in instructional and physical education settings, avoid activities that are exclu-sionary in nature. For example, a physical educator can select teams instead of having students select teams. Some children withAS are the last picked for activities that involve sports/athletic skills due to poor gait, balance, and motor coordination. Activitieshould be designed to include all children.

9. Educators should avoid elimination gamesfor example, games such as knock out, in which skill level determines the laststudent remaining in the game. This type of game may signal a child out for being seen as being "weaker" than his or her peers.Students perceived in this manner are often targets of bullying acts.

10. If bullymg acts occur, teachers can use the oppor tunity to talk with the child or children performing the act of bullying toeducate them not only abo ut the ill effects it has on the child being bullied, bu t also about how that behavior can be detrimentato the child performing the act if used in society.

11. Educators should talk with children about individual differences and how these differences are not to be exploited. Teachingall children that everyone deserves to be treated with respect may help in reducing the number of incidents.

12. All children should be encouraged to report acts of bullying. Reminding students o fthe benefits that a safe environmen thas on their own well-being could help them comm it to rep orting bullying events. It is important not only for the child who isbullied to report it, but for the children who see it occurring toward other individuals, especially a child withAS who may bereluctan t or fearful to speak up, to report it as well.

includes children with specific disabilities.Schools cannot afford to ignore the toleratedinjustices against students withAS. Educators ,with the guidance of a school social worker,must incorporate the role of supervisionparticularly in physical education classes andat recess and lunc h p eriods. "By com biningeducation about bullying and establ ishingconsequences for continued bullying, schoolsnot only will neutralize bullying; they also

assistance of a team approach to design effec-tive interv ention s, repeated acts of bullying canbe eliminated.

The incorporat ion of a social worker inmultidisciplinary planning adds an additionallevel to programming that addresses the uniqueneeds of adolescents w ith AS. M any schoolpersonnel do not possess the specific trainingto addressAS in relationship to physical educa-tion. Social workers can play an integral role in


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the training and education necessary to makeinformed decisions andplans.They understandnot only the need to address bullying issues inchildren w ith disabilities, butalso the importanceof coUaboratively establishing relationships w ithschool administrators, family support teams,teachers, and family members.

As previously stated, intervention programsoften fail to address the issues of bullying ofchildren with disabihties, particularly AS. Aspart of the collaborative efforts between schoolteachers (including special educators), com m u-nity service providers, and physical educators,the social worker can facilitate discussion sur-

rounding students withAS.Educators sometimesneed to be educated on developing an awarenessabout relationships of attitudes and behaviors,both consciously and unconsciously, and un-derstanding on ho w they are interpreted by thestudents they serve. Facilitated discussion canbring to light how reactions and the quicknessof responses to a specific incident set the tonefor repeated bullying or decreased incidents.

There are a variety of ideas for educators,

school districts, social workers and communi-ties to implement and incorporate as they movetoward reducing bullying targeted at childrenwith disabilities, particularlyAS. One area is toprovide a confidential method for students toreport bullying; however, itisactivism and c om -munication that lies at the heart of any change.Understanding AS and bullying will enableeducators to engage in team problem solvingto teach children with AS the skills needed toaddress buUying issues if they encounter them.Crea ting dialogues between all parties involved,including at the legislativelevels,can assist in thecontin uum of improvem ent. Social workers andeducators can begin by makinga conscious effortto be aware of how their behavior and reactionscan encourage o r reduce future incidences. U l-timately, it is important to remember that eachstudent is unique , as is each situation, ffi

REFERENCESAalsma, M ., & B rown , J.(2008).W hat is bullying? Jouma/

f l h

Elder, L. M ., Caterin o, L. C , Cha o,J., Shacknai, D.,Sim one , G. (2006 ). The efficacy of social skills ment of children with Asperger syndrome.EducationandTreatment of Children, 29,635-663.

Flynt, S., & M ort on , R. (2004). Bullying and childrwith disabilities.JoMma/ofInstructional Psvchologv,31 ,330-333.

Freitag, C , Kleser, C , Schneider, M., & von Gon tarA. (2007). Quantitative assessment of neuromotor function in adolescents with high functionautism and A sperger syndrom e. Jouma/ofAutism andDevelopmental Disorders, 37,948-959.

Garcia Biggs, M . J., Simpson, C. G., & G aus, M. D.(2009). A case of bullying: Bring ing togethe r tdisciplines [Practice Highlights].Children & Schools,3 , 39-42 .

Green , D., Baird, G., Barn ett,A., Henderson, L., Huber,J., & Henderson, S. (2002).The severity and naof moto r impairme nt in AS:A comparison witspecific developmental disorder of motor function. Joumo/of Child Psychology andPsychiatry,43 ,655-668.JansiewicE, E., Goldberg, M ., Newschaffer, C , DenM., Landa, R ., & Mostofsky, S. (2006). Moto r sdistinguish children with high functioning autiand Asperger's syndrom e from controls.JOMOM/ofAutism andDevelopmental Disorders,36 , 613-621.

Little, L. (2001). Peer victimization of children withAsperger's spec trum disorder. Jowr/ia/of theAmericanAcademy of Childand Adolescent Psychiatry,40,995-996.

Ma rini, Z., Fairbairn, L., & Zube r, R. (2001). Peer hment in individuals with developmental disabilTowards the development ofa multi-dimensionalbullying identification model.DevelopmentalDisabilities Bulletin, 29(2),170-195.Myklebust,J. O. (2002). Inclusion or exclusion?Tranamong special needs students in upper secondareducation in Norway.EuropeanJournal of SpecialNeeds Education, 7(3),251-263.

Myles, B. S., & Sim pson, R . L. (2002). Asperger syndrom e: An overview of characteristics.Focus onAutism and OtherDevelopmental Disabilities,7(3),132-137.

Nansel,T. R., Overpe ck, M ., Pilla, R. S., Ru an,W .JSimon s-Mo rton, B., & Scheidt,P. (2001). Bullyingbehaviors among US youth: Prevalence and asstion with psychosocial adjustment.J/lM/,285,2094-2100.

National A ssociation of Social W orkers. (2002).NASW

standards forschool social workers.Retrieved fromhttps://www.socialworkers.org/practice/standaNASW_SSWS.pdf

Pan, G., & Frey, G. G. (2006 ). Physical activity pattein youth with autism spectrum disorders.Joi/rnaofAutism andDevelopment Disorders, 36,597606.

Re id, G. (2005). Und erstand ing physical activity inyouths with autism spectrum disorders.Palaestra,2 (4 ) ,6 -7 .

Rinehart, N.,Tonge,B., Bradshaw,J., Iansek, R., Enticott,P, & McGinley,J. (2006). Gait function in high-functioning autism and Asperger's disorder:Evidence for basal-ganglia and cerebellar involvment?European Child andAdolescent Psychiatry,15(5)

.256-264.San Antonio, D., & Salzfass, E. (2007). How we trea

one another in school.Educational Leadership, 64(8)


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Silverman, S. M.,& Weinfeld, R. (2007). School successfor kids with Asperger's syndrome. Wa co,TX: PrufrockPress.

Simpson, R., & Myles, B. (1998). Aggression am ongchildren and youth who have Asperger's syn drome :A different population requiring different strategies.Preventing School Failure, 42(4), 149-153 .

Wainscot,J.J., Naylor, P., Sutcliffe, P,Tantam, D.,&Williams, J.V (2008). Relationsh ip with peersand use ofthe school environmentof mainstreamsecondary school pupils with Asperger syndrome(high-functioning autism):A case-control study.International Journal of Psychology an d PsychologicalVierapy, 8{\), 2 5 - 3 8 .

Mary Jo Garcia Biggs, PhD, LCSM{is associate professor,Texas State University-San Marcos, San M arcos,TX.CynthiaSimpson, PhD, is associate professor, Sam Houston StateUniversity, H untsville,TX. Mark D. Gaus, EdD, is associ-ate professor, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville,TX.Address correspondence to Mary f o Garcia Biggs, Texas StateUniversity-San Marcos, 601 University Drive, San Marcos,TX 78666; e-mail: [email protected].

Original manuscript received Juiy 7, 2009Final revision received Juiy24 , 2009Accepted July29, 2009

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