Sociolo fifth edition

John J. Macionis Kenyon College

Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632

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Preface xviii

PARTI THE FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIOLOGY

1 THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE 1

The Sociological Perspective 2 Seeing the General in the Particular 2 • Seeing the Strange in the Familiar 3 • Individuality in Social Context 4

The Importance of Global Perspective 6

The Sociological Perspective in Everyday Life 9 Sociology and Social Diversity 9 • Sociology and Social Marginality 9 • Sociology and Social Crisis 9 Benefits of the Sociological Perspective 10

The Origins of Sociology 11 Science and Sociology 11 • Social Change and Sociology 13

Sociological Theory 15 The Structural-Functional Paradigm 15 • The Social-Conflict Paradigm 18 • The Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm 20 • Sports: Three Theoretical Paradigms in Action 22

Summary 25 • Key Concepts 26 • Critical-Thinking Questions 27 • Suggested Readings 27

2 SOCIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION 29

The Basics of Sociological Investigation 30 Science as One Form of" Truth" 30 • Common Sense Versus Scientific Evidence 31

The Elements of Science 32 Concepts, Variables, and Measurement 32 • The Ideal of Objectivity 36 • Some Limitations of Scientific Sociology 38 • The Importance of Subjective Interpretation 38 • Politics and Research 39 • Gender and Research 39 • Feminist Research 40 • Research Ethics 41

The Methods of Sociological Research 41 Experiments 41 • Survey Research 44 • Participant Observation 49 • Secondary and Historical Analysis 51 • The Interplay of Theory and Method 54

Putting It All Together: Ten Steps in Sociological Investigation 55

Summary 57 • Key Concepts 57 • Critical-Thinking Questions 58 • Suggested Readings 59

vi

PART II THE FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIETY

3 CULTURE 61

What Is Culture? 62 Culture and Human Intelligence 64 • Culture, Nation, and Society 64

The Components of Culture 65 Symbols 65 • Language 65 • Values and Beliefs 70 • Norms 73 • "Ideal" and "Real" Culture 74 • Material Culture and Technology 75 • High Culture and Popular Culture 76

Cultural Diversity: Many Ways of Life in One World 77 Subculture 78 • Multiculturalism 78 • Counterculture 81 • Cultural Change 81 • Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativity 82 • A Global Culture? 85

Theoretical Analysis of Culture 86 Structural-Functional Analysis 86 • Social-Conflict Analysis 87 • Cultural Ecology 88 • Sociobiology 88

Culture and Human Freedom 90 Culture as Constraint 90 • Culture as Freedom 90

Summary 91 • Key Concepts 91 • Critical-Thinking Questions 92 • Suggested Readings 93

4 SOCIETY 95

Gerhard Lenski and Jean Lenski: Society and Technology 96 Hunting and Gathering Societies 97 • Horticultural and Pastoral Societies 98 • Agrarian Societies 100 •

Industrial Societies 101 • Postindustrial Societies 103 • The Limits of Technology 104

Karl Marx: Society and Conflict 105 Society and Production 107 • Conflict in History 108 • Capitalism and Class Conflict 109 • Capitalism and Alienation 111 • Revolution 111

Max Weber: The Rationalization of Society 112 Tradition and Rationality 113 • Rationality, Calvinism, and Industrial Capitalism 113 • Rational Social Organization 115

Emile Durkheim: Society and Function 117 Social Fact: Society Beyond Ourselves 118 • Function: Society in Action 118 • The Individual: Society in Ourselves 118 • Evolving Societies: The Division of Labor 119

Critical Evaluation: Four Visions of Society 120

Summary 121 • Key Concepts 122 • Critical-Thinking Questions 122 • Suggested Readings 123

5 SOCIALIZATION 125

The Importance of Social Experience 126 Human Development: Nature and Nurture 126 • Social Isolation 127

Understanding the Socialization Process 129 Sigmund Freud: The Elements of Personality 129 • Jean Piaget: Cognitive Development 130 • Lawrence Kohlberg: Moral Development 132 • Carol Gilligan: The Gender Factor 132 • George Herbert Mead: The Social Self 133

Agents of Socialization 136 The Family 136 • Schooling 137 • Peer Groups 138 • The Mass Media 138

Socialization and the Life Course 141 Childhood 142 • Adolescence 142 • Adulthood 144 • Old Age 145 • Dying 145 • The Life Course: An Overview 146

Contents vii

Resocialization: Total Institutions 147

Socialization and Human Freedom 148

Summary 149 • Key Concepts 150 • Critical-Thinking Questions 150 • Suggested Readings 151

6 SOCIAL INTERACTION IN EVERYDAY LIFE 153

Social Structure: A Guide to Everyday Living 154

Status 154 Status Set 155 • Ascribed and Achieved Status 155 • Master Status 155

Role 156 Role Set 157 • Role Conflict and Role Strain 157 • Role Exit 158

The Social Construction of Reality 158 The Thomas Theorem 159 • Ethnomethodology 159 • Reality Building in Global Perspective 160

Dramaturgical Analysis: "The Presentation of Self 162 Performances 162 • Nonverbal Communication 163 • Gender and Personal Performances 166 • Idealization 167 • Embarrassment and Tact 167

Interaction in Everyday Life: Two Illustrations 168 Language: The Gender Issue 169 • Humor: Playing with Reality 170

Summary 173 • Key Concepts 174 • Critical-Thinking Questions 175 • Suggested Readings 175

7 GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS 177

Social Groups 178 Groups Versus Other Collectivities 178 • Primary and Secondary Groups 179 • Group Leadership 181 • Group Conformity 182 • Reference Groups 184 • Ingroups and Outgroups 184 • Group Size 185 • Social Diversity 186 • Networks 187

Formal Organizations 188 Types of Formal Organizations 188 • Origins of Bureaucracy 188 • Characteristics of Bureaucracy 189 • The Informal Side of Bureaucracy 191 • Problems of Bureaucracy 192 • Gender and Race in Organizations 196 • Humanizing Bureaucracy 197 • Organizational Environment 198 • The McDonaldization of Society 199 • Formal Organizations in Japan 200

Groups and Organizations in Global Perspective 202

Summary 203 • Key Concepts 204 • Critical-Thinking Questions 204 • Suggested Readings 205

8 DEVIANCE 207

What Is Deviance? 208 Social Control 208 • The Biological Context 208 • Personality Factors 210 • The Social Foundations of Deviance 210

Structural-Functional Analysis 211 Emile Durkheim: The Functions of Deviance 211 • Merton's Strain Theory 212 • Deviant Subcultures 213 • Hirschi's Control Theory 213

Symbolic-Interaction Analysis 215 Labeling Theory 215 • The Medicalization of Deviance 217 • Sutherland's Differential Association Theory 218

Social-Conflict Analysis 218 Deviance and Power 218 • Deviance and Capitalism 219 • White-Collar Crime 220

Deviance and Social Diversity 221 Deviance and Gender 221 • Hate Crimes 223

Crime 224 I The Components of Crime 225 • Types of Crime 226 • Criminal Statistics 226 • The "Street" Criminal: A Profile 226 • Crime in Global Perspective 229

The Criminal Justice System 230 Police 230 • Courts 232 • Punishment 233

Summary 235 • Key Concepts 236 • Critical-Thinking Questions 236 • Suggested Readings 237

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PART III

SOCIAL INEQUALITY

9 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION 239

What Is Social Stratification? 240 Caste and Class Systems 241 The Caste System 241 • The Class System 244 • Caste and Class Together: The United Kingdom 245 • Another Example: Japan 246 • The Former Soviet Union 247 • Ideology: Stratification's "Staying Power" 248

The Functions of Social Stratification 251 The Davis-Moore Thesis 251 • Meritocracy 251

Stratification and Conflict 253 Karl Marx: Class and Conflict 253 • Why No Marxist Revolution? 255 • Max Weber: Class, Status, and Power 257

Stratification and Technology in Global Perspective 258 Hunting and Gathering Societies 258 • Horticultural, Pastoral, and Agrarian Societies 258 • Industrial Societies 258 • The Kuznets Curve 259

Social Stratification: Facts and Values 261

Summary 261 • Key Concepts 262 • Critical-Thinking Questions 263 • Suggested Readings 263

10 SOCIAL CLASS IN THE UNITED STATES 265

Dimensions of Social Inequality 266 Income 266 • Wealth 267 • Power 268 • Occupational Prestige 268 • Schooling 269

Ascription and Social Stratification 270 Ancestry 270 • Race and Ethnicity 270 • Gender 270 • Religion 271

Social Classes in the United States 272 The Upper Class 272 • The Middle Class 273 • The Working Class 275 • The Lower Class 276

The Difference Class Makes 276 Class and Health 276 • Class and Values 277 • Class and Politics 277 • Class, Family, and Gender 278

Social Mobility 278 Social Mobility: Myth and Reality 279 • The "Middle-Class Slide" 280 • The U.S. Class Structure in Global Perspective 282

Poverty in the United States 283 The Extent of U.S. Poverty 283 • Who Are the Poor? 283 • Explaining Poverty 286 • Homelessness 289 • Class and Welfare, Politics and Values 290

Summary 291 • Key Concepts 292 • Critical-Thinking Questions 292 • Suggested Readings 292

11 GLOBAL STRATIFICATION 295

Global Economic Development 296 The Problem of Terminology 296 • The Most-Developed Countries 297 • The Less-Developed Countries 298 • The Least-Developed Countries 300

Global Poverty 300 The Severity of Poverty 300 • The Extent of Poverty 302 • Poverty and Children 304 • Poverty and Women 304 • Correlates of Global Poverty 305

Global Inequality: Theoretical Analysis 306 Modernization Theory 307 • Dependency Theory 312

Contents ix

Global Inequality: Looking Ahead 317 Summary 319 • Key Concepts 320 • Critical-Thinking Questions 320 • Suggested Readings 320

12 RACE AND ETHNICITY 323

The Social Significance of Race and Ethnicity 324 Race 324 • Ethnicity 325 • Minorities 326

Prejudice 328 Stereotypes 328 • Racism 329 • Theories of Prejudice 330 • Discrimination 332 • Institutional Discrimination 332 • Prejudice and Discrimination: The Vicious Cycle 333

Majority and Minority: Patterns of Interaction 333 Pluralism 333 • Assimilation 334 • Segregation 335 • Genocide 336

Race and Ethnicity in the United States 336 Native Americans 337 • White Anglo-Saxon Protestants 338 • African Americans 338 • Asian Americans 342 • Hispanic Americans 347 • White Ethnic Americans 349

U.S. Minorities: Looking Ahead 350 Summary 351 • Key Concepts 352 • Critical-Thinking Questions 352 • Suggested Readings 353

13 SEX AND GENDER 355

Sex and Gender 356 Sex: A Biological Distinction 356 • Sexual Orientation 357 • Gender: A Cultural Distinction 358 • Patriarchy and Sexism 360

Gender and Socialization 363 Gender and the Family 364 • Gender and the Peer Group 365 • Gender and Schooling 366 • Gender and the Mass Media 366 • Gender and Adult Socialization 367

Gender and Social Stratification 367 Working Men and Women 367 • Housework: Women's "Second Shift" 369 • Gender and Income 370 • Gender and Education 372 • Gender and Politics 373 • Minority Women 374 • Are Women a Minority? 374 • Violence Against Women 374

Theoretical Analysis of Gender 376 Structural-Functional Analysis 376 • Social-Conflict Analysis 377

Feminism 378 Basic Feminist Ideas 378 • Variations Within Feminism 379 • Resistance to Feminism 382

Gender: Looking Ahead 382 Summary 383 • Key Concepts 384 • Critical-Thinking Questions 384 • Suggested Readings 385

14 AGING AND THE ELDERLY 387

The Graying of the United States 388

Growing Old: Biology and Culture 389 Biological Changes 390 • Psychological Changes 391 • Aging and Culture 391 • Age Stratification: A Global Assessment 392

Transitions and Problems of Aging 393 Social Isolation 395 • Retirement 396 • Aging and Poverty 396 • Abuse of the Elderly 398

Theoretical Analysis of Aging 398 Structural-Functional Analysis: Aging and Disengagement 398 • Symbolic-Interaction Analysis: Aging and Activity 399 • Social-Conflict Analysis: Aging and Inequality 399

Ageism 400 The Elderly: A Minority? 400

Death and Dying 401 Historical Patterns of Death 401 • The Modern Separation of Life and Death 403 • Bereavement 403

Summary 404 • Key Concepts 405 • Critical-Thinking Questions 405 • Suggested Readings 405

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/ PART IV SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

15 THE ECONOMY AND WORK 407

The Economy: Historical Overview 408 The Agricultural Revolution 408 • The Industrial Revolution 408 • The Postindustrial Society and the Information Revolution 409 • Sectors of the Economy 411 • The Global Economy 411

Comparative Economic Systems 412 Capitalism 412 • Socialism 412 • Democratic Socialism and State Capitalism 414 • Relative Advantages of Capitalism and Socialism 414 • Changes in Socialist Countries 415

Work in the Postindustrial Economy 415 The Decline of Agricultural Work 416 • From Factory Work to Service Work 416 • The Dual Labor Market 416 • Labor Unions 418 • Professions 418 • Self-Employment 420 • Unemployment 421 • The Underground Economy 422 • Social Diversity in the Workplace 422 • Technology and Work 422

Corporations 424 Economic Concentration 424 • Conglomerates and Corporate Linkages 424 • Corporations and Competition 426 • Corporations and the Global Economy 426

Looking Ahead: The Economy of the Twenty-First Century 427

Summary 428 • Key Concepts 429 • Critical-Thinking Questions 430 • Suggested Readings 430

16 POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT 433

Power and Authority 434 Traditional Authority 434 • Rational-Legal Authority 434 • Charismatic Authority 434

Politics in Global Perspective 435 Monarchy 436 • Democracy 436 • Authoritarianism and Totalitarianism 437 • A Global Political System? 439

Politics in the United States 441 U.S. Culture and the Growth of Government 441 • The Political Spectrum 441 • Special-Interest Groups 443 • Voter Apathy 445

Theoretical Analysis of Power in Society 445 The Pluralist Model 445 • The Power-Elite Model 446

Power Beyond the Rules 447 Revolution 447 • Terrorism 448

War and Peace 449 The Causes of War 449 • Militarism and the Arms Race 450 • Nuclear Weapons and War 451 • Social Diversity and the Military 451 • The Pursuit of Peace 453

Looking Ahead: Politics in the Twenty-First Century 454

Summary 455 • Key Concepts 456 • Critical-Thinking Questions 456 • Suggested Readings 457

17 FAMILY 459

The Family: Basic Concepts 460

The Family in Global Perspective 460 Marriage Patterns 461 • Residential Patterns 461 • Patterns of Descent 462 • Patterns of Authority 463

Theoretical Analysis of the Family 465 Functions of the Family: Structural-Functional Analysis 465 • Inequality and the Family: Social-Conflict Analysis 465 • Micro-Level Analysis 466

Contents xi

Stages of Family Life 467 Courtship 467 • Settling In: Ideal and Real Marriage 468 • Child Rearing 468 • The Family in Later Life 470

U.S. Families: Class, Race, and Gender 471 Social Class 472 • Ethnicity and Race 472 • Gender 474

Transition and Problems in Family Life 475 Divorce 475 • Remarriage 478 • Family Violence 478

Alternative Family Forms 480 One-Parent Families 480 • Cohabitation 480 • Gay and Lesbian Couples 480 • Singlehood 481

New Reproductive Technology and the Family 481 In Vitro Fertilization 481 • Ethical Issues 481

Looking Ahead: Family in the Twenty-First Century 482 Summary 483 • Key Concepts 484 • Critical-Thinking Questions 484 • Suggested Readings 485

18 RELIGION 487

Religion: Basic Concepts 488 Religion and Sociology 488

Theoretical Analysis of Religion 489 Functions of Religion: Structural-Functional Analysis 489 • The Social Construction of the Sacred 489 • Inequality and Religion: Social-Conflict Analysis 490

Religion and Social Change 491 Max Weber: Protestantism and Capitalism 491 • Liberation Theology 491

Types of Religious Organization 492 Church and Sect 493 • Cult 495

Religion in History 495 Religion in Preindustrial Societies 495 • Religion in Industrial Societies 495

World Religions 495 Christianity 496 • Islam 498 • Judaism 499 • Hinduism 500 • Buddhism 502 • Confucianism 502

Religion in the United States 503 Religious Affiliation 503 • Religiosity 503 • Religion and Social Stratification 505

Religion in a Changing Society 505 Secularization 505 • Civil Religion 506 • Religious Revival 506

Looking Ahead: Religion in the Twenty-First Century 509 Summary 509 • Key Concepts 510 • Critical-Thinking Questions 510 • Suggested Readings 511

19 EDUCATION 513

Education: A Global Survey 514 Preindustrial Societies 514 • Industrial Societies 514 • Schooling in Japan 515 • Schooling in Great Britain 516 • Schooling in the Former Soviet Union 517 • Schooling in the United States 517

The Functions of Schooling 518 Socialization 518 • Cultural Innovation 519 • Social Integration 519 • Social Placement 519 • Latent Functions of Schooling 520

Schooling and Social Inequality 520 Social Control 520 • Standardized Testing 520 • School Tracking 521 • Inequality Among Schools 521 • Access to Higher Education 523 • Credentialism 524 • Privilege and Personal Merit 525

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Problems in the Schools 526 School Discipline 526 • Student Passivity 527 • Dropping Out 529 • Academic Standards 529

Recent Issues in U.S. Education 531 School Choice 531 • Schooling People with Disabilities 532 • Adult Education 532

Looking Ahead: Schooling in the Twenty-First Century 533 Summary 533 • Key Concepts 534 • Critical-Thinking Questions 534 • Suggested Readings 535

20 HEALTH AND MEDICINE 537

What Is Health? 538 Health and Society 538

Health: A Global Survey 538 Health in Preindustrial Societies 539 • Health in Poor Societies Today 539 • Health in Industrial Societies 539

Health in the United States 542 Social Epidemiology: The Distribution of Health 542 • Eating Disorders 543 • Cigarette Smoking 544 • Sexually Transmitted Diseases 544 • AIDS 545 • Ethical Issues: Confronting Death 548

The Medical Establishment 549 The Rise of Scientific Medicine 549 • Holistic Medicine 551 • Paying for Health: A Global Survey 551 • Medicine in the United States 553

Theoretical Analysis of Health and Medicine 555 Structural-Functional Analysis 555 • Symbolic-Interaction Analysis 556 • Social-Conflict Analysis 557

Looking Ahead: Health and Medicine in the Twenty-First Century 558

Summary 559 • Key Concepts 560 • Critical-Thinking Questions 560 • Suggested Readings 561

PARTV SOCIAL CHANGE

Demography: The Study of Population 564 Fertility 564

Mortality 564 Migration 565 • Population Growth 565 • Population Composition 567

History and Theory of Population Growth 568 Malthusian Theory 568 • Demographic Transition Theory 569 • Global Population: A Survey 570

Urbanization: The Growth of Cities 573 The Evolution of Cities 573 • The Growth of U.S. Cities 575 • Suburbs and Central Cities 576 • Postindustrial Sunbelt Cities 577 • Megalopolis: Regional Cities 578

Urbanism as a Way of Life 578 Ferdinand Toennies: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft 579 • Emile Durkheim: Mechanical and Organic Solidarity 579 • Georg Simmel: The Blase Urbanite 580 • The Chicago School: Robert Park and Louis Wirth 580 • Urban Ecology 581 • The Historical Importance of Cities 583

Urbanization in Poor Societies 583

Looking Ahead: Population and Urbanization in the Twenty-First Century 586 Summary 587 • Key Concepts 588 • Critical-Thinking Questions 588 • Suggested Readings 589

Contents xiii

22 THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 591

Ecology: The Study of the Natural Environment 592 The Global Dimension 592 • Technology 593 • Population Growth 594 • Cultural Patterns: Growth and Limits 596

Environmental Issues 598 Solid Waste: The "Disposable Society" 598 • Preserving Clean Water 600 • Clearing the Air 602 • Acid Rain 603 • The Rain Forests 603

Society and the Environment: Theoretical Analysis 607 Structural-Functional Analysis 607 • Social-Conflict Analysis 608

Looking Ahead: Toward a Sustainable Society and World 609

Summary 611 • Key Concepts 612 • Critical-Thinking Questions 613 • Suggested Readings 613

23 COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 615

Collective Behavior 616 Studying Collective Behavior 616 • Crowds 617 • Mobs and Riots 618 • Contagion Theory 619 • Convergence Theory 619 • Emergent-Norm Theory 619 • Crowds, Politics, and Social Change 620 • Rumor and Gossip 620 • Public Opinion 622 • Panic and Mass Hysteria 622 • Fashions and Fads 623

Social Movements 625 Types of Social Movements 625 • Deprivation Theory 626 • Mass-Society Theory 627 • Structural-Strain Theory 628 • Resource Mobilization Theory 629 • New Social Movements Theory 630 • Gender and Movements 630 • Stages in Social Movements 630 • Social Movements and Social Change 632

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Looking Ahead: Social Movements in the Twenty-First Century 633

Summary 633 • Key Concepts 634 • Critical-Thinking Questions 634 • Suggested Readings 635

24 SOCIAL CHANGE: TRADITIONAL, MODERN, AND POSTMODERN SOCIETIES 637

What Is Social Change? 638

Causes of Social Change 639 Culture and Change 639 • Conflict and Change 640 • Ideas and Change 640 • The Natural Environment and Change 640 • Demographic Change 640

Modernity 642 Key Dimensions of Modernization 642 • Ferdinand Toennies: The Loss of Community 643 • Emile Durkheim: The Division of Labor 645 • Max Weber: Rationalization 645 • Karl Marx: Capitalism 646

Theoretical Analysis of Modernity 648 Structural-Functional Theory: Modernity as Mass Society 648 • Social-Conflict Theory: Modernity as Class Society 649 • Modernity and the Individual 651 • Modernity and Progress 652

Postmodemity 654

Looking Ahead: Modernization and Our Global Future 656

Summary 657 • Key Concepts 658 • Critical-Thinking Questions 658 • Suggested Readings 659

Glossary 660

References 667

Photo Credits 692

Index 694