10

Chapter - 2

The Consonant and Vowel system

2.1 The Consonants

P. Christophersen, a noted phonetician defines consonants as

“sounds in the production of which there is no obstruction of the air

passage. This obstruction is caused sometimes by another of the

speech organs, and it amounts sometimes to a complete closure

and all other time only to a partial one.” (An English Phonetics

Course – 1956).

J.D.O‟Connor in his ‘Better English Pronunciation’ (1981)

very economically defines consonants in the same tune as “Sound in

which air from the lungs is seriously obstructed in the mouth and

which occurs in similar positions in words.” Usually most of the

phoneticians define consonants in easy and simple terms as

„sounds‟ other than „Vowels‟.

Basically, we describe and identify consonants briefly by using

a three-term label indicating (i) voicing, (ii) place of articulation

and (iii) manner of articulation.

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As regards voicing, consonants are classified into voiced and

voiceless. In the case of voiced consonants the vocal cords vibrate

while in case of voiceless consonants, the vocal cords do not vibrate

at the time of producing the sounds. Regarding the Place of

Articulation, consonants are divided into bilabial, dental, labio -

dental, alveolar, post-alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal etc. on the

basis of the articulatory points at which the articulators actually touch

or are at their closest. Regarding the Manner of Articulation,

consonants can be divided into stops, fricatives, affricates,

nasals, rolls, laterals, frictionless continuants etc. depending on

the type of obstruction caused by the narrowing or closure of the

articulators.

Based on this three-term label identification, we find that there

are 24 consonants in English as well as in Manipuri. Though they

share similarities in case of voicing but in case of place and manner

of articulation, they have both similarities and differences. Below is

given (1) Chart of English consonants and (2) Chart of Manipuri

consonants :

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English Consonants (R.P.)

Chart

Manner of

articulation

Place of Articulation

Bilabial

Labio

dental

Dental

Alveolar

Post -

alveolar/

Alveo -

palatal

Palatal

Velar

Glottal

Plosive /

stop

p b

t d

k g

Affricate

ʧ ʤ

Fricative

f v

θ ð

s z

ʃ ʒ

h

Nasal

m

n

ŋ

Lateral

l

Semivowel/

approximant

glide

(w)

r

j

(labialis

ed)

w

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Manipuri Consonants (Model, N. Sarat)

Chart

F

r

o

m

t

h

e

a

b

o

v

e

c

arts it is clear that there are 24 consonants in both English and

Manipuri. Out of these 24 consonants,

Manner of

articulation

Place of Articulation

Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal

Stop

p b

pʰ bʰ

t d

tʰ dʰ

k g

kʰ gʰ

Affricate

c j

jʰ

Fricative

S

h

Nasal

m

n

ŋ

Lateral

l

Flap

r

Semivowel

(w)

y

w

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English has –

(i) Six plosives/stops : / p, b, t, d, k, g /

(ii) Two affricates : / ʧ, ʤ /

(iii) Nine fricatives : / f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h /

(iv) Three nasals : / m, n, /

(v) One lateral : / l /

(vi) Three semivowels / gliding consonants : / w, r, j /

On the other hand Manipuri has –

(i) Twelve plosives/stops : / p, b, pʰ, bʰ, t, d,

tʰ, dʰ, k, g, kʰ, gʰ /

(ii) Three affricates : / c, j, jʰ /

(iii) Two fricatives : / s, h /

(iv) Three nasals : / m, n, /

(v) One lateral : / l /

(vi) One flap : / r /

(vii) Two semivowels/gliding consonants : / w, y/

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2.1.1 Details of English and Manipuri Consonants :

2.1.1.1 Plosive / Stop Consonants :

A plosive/stop consonant is one that is produced with a

stricture. The articulators are in firm contact for some time (closing

the air passage and compressing the air) and then are separated

suddenly (so that the air escapes making an explosive sound).

The English plosive consonant /p/ :

During articulation of /p/, the two lips make a firm contact with

each other. The soft palate is raised to close the nasal passage. The

eggressive air stream is held up and gets compressed. When the

lips are separated suddenly, the air escapes with an explosive

sound. The vocal cords are open and do not vibrate. /p/ can

thus be described as a voiceless bilabial plosive or stop.

+ consonantal

– sonorant

+ anterior – aspirated

– coronal +

– continuant

– voice

The English consonant /p/ can occur initially, medially and finally:

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Initial occurrences

pin = / pın /

pen = / pen /

paper = / peıpə /

Medial occurrences

upper = / Ʌpə /

appear = / əpıə /

capture = / kæpʧə /

Final occurrences

top = / tɒp /

gap = / gæp /

tap = / tæp /

/p/ is aspirated (i.e. released with a strong puff of air) when it occurs

initially in a stressed syllable. The aspirated variety (known as the

allophone) can be represented by the symbol [ Pʰ ] :

pull = / pʰu:l /

pet = / pʰet /

appoint = / əpʰɔınt /

appear = / əpʰıə

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/p/ is unaspirated when it occurs after /s/ and unaccented syllables.

spirit = / spırıt /

spare = / speıə /

supper = / sɅpə /

potato = / pəteıtoƱ /

/p/ is usually released when it is followed by /m/

topmost = / tɒpməust /

/p/ is not released audibly when it occurs finally or before another

plosive or affricate :

gap = / gæp /

capture = / kæpʧə /

captain = / kæptın /

The English plosive consonant /b/ :

/b/ is articulated exactly like /p/ described above, except

that during the articulation of /b/, the vocal cords vibrate producing

voice. /b/ can thus be described as voiced bilabial plosive or stop.

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+ consonantal

– continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

– coronal

– sonorant

+ voice

It can occur initially, medially and finally :

Initial occurrences

bee = / bi: /

bid = / bıd /

bed = / bed /

Medial occurrences

rubber = / rɅbə /

labour = / leıbə /

habit = / hæbıt /

Final occurrences

tribe = / traıb /

rib = / rıb /

tap = / tæp /

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/b/ is usually released when it is immediately followed by /m/ or /n/ :

submit = / səbmıt /

abnormal = / æbnə׃məl /

/b/ is not released audibly when it occurs finally and when it is

immediately followed by another plosive or affricate:

tub = / tɅb / (final)

subject = / sɅbdʒıkt / (/b/ occuring before an affricate)

obtain = / əbteın / (/b/ occuring before an other plosive)

It is to be noted that /b/ is devoiced when it occurs initially and

finally.

The English plosive Consonant /t/ :

/t/ is articulated by the tip or blade of the tongue making a firm

contact against the teeth ridge. The soft palate is raised thereby

blocking the nasal passage of air. When the tip/blade of the tongue

is released from the teeth ridge, the air that is compressed by

pressure from the lungs escapes with an explosive sound. The vocal

cords do not vibrate. /t/ can thus be described as a voiceless

alveolar plosive.

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+ consonantal

– continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

+ coronal

– sonorant

– voice

It can occur in all the positions: initially, medially and finally.

Initial occurrences

tell = / tel /

ten = / ten /

tall = / tɔ:l /

Medial occurrences

obtain = / əbteın /

captain = / kæptın /

abstain = / əbsteın /

Final occurrences

bat = / bæt /

that = / ðæt /

rat = / ræt /

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/t/ is aspirated when it occurs initially in a stressed syllable :

tub = / tɅb / = / tʰɅb /

attain = / əteın / = / ətʰeın /

potato = / pəteıtou / = / pətʰeıto /

/t/ is unaspirated when it is preceded by /s/ and when it occurs in an

unaccented syllable :

stain = / steın /

butter = / bɅtə /

computer = / kəmpju:tə /

/t/ is dentally released before / θ / and / ð / :

eight = / eıtθ /

look at this = / luk at ðıs /

/t/ is nasally released when it is immediately followed by /n/ :

cotton = / kɒtn /

button = / bɅtn /

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/t/ is laterally released when it is immediately followed by /t/ :

little = / lıtl /

cattle = / kætl /

/t/ is not released audibly when it occurs finally in a word and when it

is immediately followed by another plosive or affricate :

cut = / kɅt / (final /t/)

football = / fƱtbə:l / (/t/ occurring before another plosive

that church = / ðæt ʧʒ:ʧ / (/t/ occurring before an affricate)

/t/ is used as a post alveolar before /r/ :

rest room = / rest rƱm /

at Rome = / at rƱm /

Spellings :

/t/ is represented by the letters „t‟ as in /tent/ = tent. Also the

past tense marker „ed‟ is pronounced as /t/ when the base form ends

in a voiceless consonant other than /t/ as in :

packet = / pækt /

missed = / mıst /

rushed etc = / rɅʃt /

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The English plosive Consonant /d/ :

/d/ is articulated exactly like /t/ described above except that

during the articulation of /d/ the vocal cords vibrate producing voice.

/d/ can thus be described as voiced alveolar plosive.

+ consonantal

– continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

+ coronal

– sonorant

+ voice

It can also occur in all positions : initially, medially and finally.

Initial occurrences

dash = / dӕʃ /

deal = / di:l /

dog = / dɔg /

Medial occurrences

middle = / mıdl /

garden = / gɑ:dn /

louder = / laudə /

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Final occurrences

Lead(metal) = / led /

hard = / hɑ:d /

wood = / wud /

(i) /d/ is released nasally when it is immediately followed by /m/

or/n/ :

Admire = / ədmaiə /

road-mender = / roƱd mendə /

sudden = / sɅdn /

(ii) /d/ is laterally released when it is immediately followed by /l/ :

riddle = / ridl /

middle = / midl /

(iii) /d/ is dentally released when it is immediately followed by / θ /

or / ð / :

width = / widθ /

add them = / æd ðem /

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(iv) /d/ is post-alveolarly released when it is used before /r/ :

he would write = / hi:d rait /

(v) /d/ is not released audibly when it occurs finally and when it is

immediately followed by another plosive or affricate :

good = / gƱd / (final /d/)

bad boy = / bæd bəi/(/d/ followed by another plosive /b/)

good zam = / gƱd ʤæm / (/d/ followed by an affricate)

Spellings:

/d/ is represented by the letter d, dd, as in dog, garden middle

etc. as

dog = / dɔg /, garden = / gɑ:dn /, middle = / mıdl / etc.

The English plosive Consonant /k/ :

In pronouncing /k/, the back of the tongue makes a firm

contact with the soft palate. The soft palate is raised, thereby

shutting off the nasal passage of air. The air that is compressed by

pressure from the lungs escapes with an explosive sound when the

back of the tongue is released from the soft palate. The vocal cords

do not vibrate. /k/ can thus be described as a voiceless velar

plosive.

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+ consonantal

– continuant

– anterior – aspirated

– coronal

– sonorant

– voice

/ k / can occur in all positions : initially, medially and finally :

Initial occurrences

calm = / ka:m /

king = / kıŋ /

cut = / kɅt /

Medial occurrences

reckon = / rekən /

liquor = / lıkə /

pocket = / pɒkıt /

Final occurrences

like = / laık /

ache = / eık /

duke = / dju:k /

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(i) / k / is aspirated when it occurs initially in stressed syllable :

Captain = / kæptın / = / kʰæptın /

kit = / kıt / = / kʰıt /

(ii) / k / is unaspirated after /s/ and in unaccented syllables :

skın = / skin / (/k/ after /s/)

canal = / kənæl / (/k/ in an unaccented syllable)

(iii) / k / has nasal plosion before nasal consonants :

acme = / ækmı /

bacon = / beıkn /

Faulkner = / fə:knə /

(iv) / k / has little or more plosion before other plosives :

picture = / pıktʃə / (/k/ before plosive consonant / ʧ /)

inkpot = / ıŋkpɒt / (/k/ before plosive consonant /p/ )

.

. Spellings :

/k/ is represented by the letters k, c, ch, ck, cc, que etc. as in :

book = / bƱk /

cot = / kɒt /

character = / kærəktə /

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back = / bæk /

account = / əkaƱınt /

cheque = / ʧek /

The English plosive Consonant /g/ :

/g/ is articulated like /k/ except that during the articulation of

/g/, the vocal cords vibrate, producing voice. /g/ can thus be

described as voiced velar plosive.

+ consonantal

– continuant

– anterior – aspirated

– coronal

– sonorant

+ voice

/g/ can occur in all positions : initially, medially and finally :

Initial occurrences

geese = / gi:s /

gift = / gıft /

get = / get /

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Medial occurrences

begin = / bıgın /

eager = / i:gə /

anger = / æŋgə /

Final occurrences

big = / bıg /

egg = / eg /

log = / lɒg /

(i) / g / is partially devoiced at the initial position :

go = / g°oƱ /

(ii) / g / is partially devoiced at the final position :

big = / bıg° /

(iii) / g / is usually released when it is followed by /m/ or /n/ :

dogmatic = / dɒgmætık /

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(iv) / g / has little or no plosion before other plosive :

begged = / begd / (/g/ before the plosive /d/)

big dog = / bıg dɒg / (/g/ before the plosive /d/)

Spellings:

/g/ is represented by the letters g, gg,, as in :

get = / get /

bag = / bæg /

luggage = / lɅgıʤ /

baggage = / bægıdʒ /

The Manipuri plosive consonant /p/ :

In the production of this sound the air - stream is completely

stopped in the oral cavity by closing the lips. The soft palate is raised

to close the nasal passage. The eggressive air–stream is held up

and gets compressed. When the lips are separated abruptly the air

escapes with a slight explosion, the vocal cords are open and do not

vibrate. The sound is called voiceless, bilabial stop or plosive.

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+ consonantal

– sonorant

+ anterior – aspirated

– coronal

– continuant

– voice

/p/ can occur initially, medially and finally

Initial occurrences

pi = / tear /

pao = / news /

pot = / thing /

Medial occurrences

cətpə = / to go /

ipa = / my father /

məpul = / bundle /

Final occurrences

hup = / a kind of grass /

nəp = / phlegm /

tʰop = / brain /

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/p/ becomes /b/ after voiced consonants and vowels as in :

lan + pa > ləmba = / rival /

ta + pə > tabə = / to hear /

/p/ alternates with /b/ after vowel and voiced consonant as in :

papa ~ pa bə = / father /

təmpak ~ təmbak = / lab /

kʰupak ~ kʰubak = / palm /

In some cases /p/ occurs after syllable final, voiceless

consonants as in :

kəppə = / to weep /

kəkpə = / to cut /

There are residues as well as in :

lupa = / rupee /

pipa = / vessel / etc

Spellings :

/p/ is represented by the Manipuri letter „ Y ‟ as in :

Yç= pao = / news /

EõYËY kəppə = / to weep /

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The Manipuri plosive consonant /b/ :

It is produced in the same way as the English consonant /b/ .

Hence the Manipuri consonant /b/ is also a voiced bilabial stop /

plosive.

+ consonantal

– continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

– coronal

– sonorant

+ voice

/b/ can occur initially ( in case of loan words only ), medially

and finally (mostly loan words).

Initial occurrences

bor = / bridegroom /

bəjar = / market /

bicar = / trial /

Medial occurrences

məbu = / her elder brother /

əbok = / grandmother /

tʰəbək = / work /

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Final occurrences

tolob = / pay /

kləb = / club /

jəbab = / reply /

As stated earlier /b/ is the alternation of /p/ after a vowel or a

voiced consonant. In some cases /b/ occurs after syllable final,

voiceless consonants as in :

ləmba = / rival /

tabə = / to hear / etc .

There are residues as well as in :

pabə = / father /

tabə = / fallen / etc.

Spelling :

/b/ is represented by the Manipuri letter „ [ý ‟ as in :

å[ýçÌ[ýË / bor / = / bridegroom / etc.

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The Manipuri plosive consonant /t/ :

In the production of this sound the air stream is completely

stopped in the oral cavity by raising the tip and the front of the

tongue to touch the teeth and the teeth ridge. The soft palate is

raised to close the nasal passage. The eggressive air stream is held

up and gets compressed. When the tongue is withdrawn from the

teeth and the teeth ridge the air suddenly escapes with a slight

explosion. The vocal cords are open and do not vibrate. This sound

is called voiceless alveolar plosive/stop.

+ consonantal

– continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

– coronal

– sonorant

– voice

/t/ can occur initially, medially and finally.

Initial occurrences

təl = / bread /

til = / worm /

tan = / rhythm /

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Medial occurrences

mətek = / piece /

mətu = / feather /

kətən = / idle man /

Final occurrences

tat = / cheating /

pot = / thing /

sut = / thread /

There are some residues as well –

mətu = / feather /

mətəm = / time / etc .

/t/ alternates with /d/ after voiced consonants and vowels as in :

mətom ~ mədom = / alone /

ləmta ~ ləmda = / name of a month / etc

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Spelling :

/ t / is represented by the Manipuri letter „ Tö ‟ as in :

TÇöe tuŋ = / back /

åTöXË ten = / arrow / etc.

The Manipuri plosive Consonant /d/ :

/d/ is produced in the same way as the English consonant /d/.

Hence the Manipuri consonant /d/ is also a voiced alveolar plosive/

stop. /d/ can occur initially, medially and finally.

+ consonantal

– continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

+ coronal

– sonorant

+ voice

/d/ can occur initially (loan words only), medially and finally

(mostly loan words):

Initial occurrences

dada = / elder brother /

daku = / rogue /

dərji = / tailor /

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Medial occurrences

mədu = / that /

cadəbə = / not to eat /

həndəktə = / recently /

Final occurrences

rod = / road /

id = / id festival /

rəsid = / receipt /

Residue :

kʰəŋde = / does not know /

/d/ sometimes becomes /t/ as stated above in /t/.

mətom ~ mədom = / alone /

ləmta ~ ləmda = / name of a month / etc

Spellings :

/d/ is represented by the Manipuri letter „ V ‟ as in :

VçEËõ dak = / spot /

YçXËV]Ë pandəm = / goal / etc.

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The Manipuri plosive Consonant /k/ :

In the production of this sound the eggressive air stream is

completely stopped at the soft palate by raising the back of the

tongue to touch the soft palate. The soft palate is raised to close the

nasal passage. When the tongue is released the compressed air

from the lungs escapes with a slight explosion. The vocal cords are

open and do not vibrate. This sound is called voiceless, velar

plosive/stop.

+ consonantal

– continuant

– anterior – aspirated

– coronal

– sonorant

– voice

/k/can occur initially, medially and finally.

Initial occurrences

kibə = / to fear /

kun = / twenty /

kəi = / tiger /

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Medial occurrences

ŋəkpə = / to wonder /

sokpə = / to touch /

pikpə = / small /

Final occurrences

ŋək = / neck /

pʰək = / mat /

kok = / head /

/k/ occurs in general cases after final , voiceless consonants as in :

məhakki = / his or her /

papki = / of sin / etc

There are some residues such as

məka = / his room /

leika = / patal / etc as in

/k/ becomes /g/ after voiced consonant and a vowel

cəka > cəga = / burnt ice /

muka > muga = / silk / etc

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The Manipuri plosive Consonant /g/ :

It is produced in the same way as the English consonant /g/.

Hence the Manipuri consonant /g/ is also a voiced velar plosive.

+ consonantal

– continuant

– anterior – aspirated

– coronal

– sonorant

+ voice

/g/ can occur initially, medially and finally. The initial and final

occurrence of /g/ are found only in loan words.

Initial occurrences

gəj = / yard /

gom = / gum /

gari = / car/cart /

Medial occurrences

sagei = / clan /

səgol = / horse /

kʰoŋgun = / foot print /

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Final occurrences

jəg = / jug /

beg = / beg /

/g/ occurs in some cases after syllable final voiced consonants

and vowels as in :

cəŋgəni = / will enter /

əigi = / my / etc

/g/ sometimes becomes /k/ after vowels as stated in /k/.

cəga = / cəka /

muga = / muka /

Spellings :

/g/ is represented by the Manipuri letter „ G ‟ :

mXË gun = / quality /

amXË səgun = / burglary / etc.

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The Manipuri plosive Consonant /pʰ/ :

/pʰ/ is produced in the same way as the Manipuri consonant

/p/ except that it is released with a puff of air as aspiration. The

Manipuri consonant /pʰ/ is therefore a voiceless, aspirated bilabial

stop/ plosive

+ consonantal

– continuant

+ anterior + aspirated

– coronal

– sonorant

– voice

/pʰ/ occurs in all position - initially, medially and finally. The

final occurrence of / pʰ/ is found only in loan words.

Initial occurrences

/ pʰək / = mat

/ pʰan / = seat

/ pʰubə / = to beat

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Medial occurrences

/ cəpʰu / = pitcher

/ sapʰu / = strength

/ ləpʰoi / = banana

Final occurrences

/ mapʰ / = pardon

/ bərəpʰ / = ice

/ hapʰ / = half

In some cases /pʰ/ occur after syllable final , voiceless consonant

/ kəkpʰəm / = place for cutting

/ cətpʰəm / = place for walking

Some residues are there –

/ cəpʰu / = pitcher

/ əpʰəbə / = good

/ ləpʰu / = plantain tree etc.

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Free alternation between /pʰ/ and /bʰ/

/ pʰəmpʰəm / ~ / pʰəmbʰəm / = seat

/ leipʰəm / ~ / leibʰəm / = address etc

Spellings :

/pʰ/ is represented by the Manipuri letter „ Zõ ‟

ZõEËõ / pʰək / = mat

é_Zõ]Ë / leipʰəm / = address, etc

The Manipuri plosive Consonant /bʰ/ :

/bʰ/ is produced in the same way as the Manipuri consonant

/b/ except that a lot of air escapes through the vocal cord while they

are vibrating. The Manipuri consonant /bʰ/ is therefore a voiced

aspirated bilabial stop/ plosive.

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+ consonantal

– continuant

+ anterior + aspirated

– coronal

– sonorant

+ voice

/bʰ/ can occur only initially and medially. The initial occurrence

is found only in loan words.

Initial occurrences

/ bʰab / = understanding

/ bʰao / = rate

/ bʰul / = mistake

Medial occurrences

/ cəŋbʰəm / = entrance

/ pʰibʰəm / = condition

/ pʰəmbʰəm / = seat etc

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/bʰ/ occurs mostly in the medial position after voiced

consonants and vowels as stated in /pʰ/ above

/ cəŋbʰəm / = entrance

/ caubʰəl / = a name etc

/bʰ/ has free alternation in some cases with /pʰ/ as stated in

/pʰ/ above

/ pʰəmbʰəm / ~ / pʰəmpʰəm / = seat

/ leibʰəm / ~ / leipʰəm / = address etc

Spellings :

/bʰ/ is represented by the Manipuri letter „ \ö ‟

\öç[ýË / bʰab / = idea

JôIËø\ö]Ë / cəŋbʰəm / = entrance etc

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The Manipuri plosive Consonant /tʰ/ :

/tʰ/ is produced in the same way as the Manipuri consonant /t/

except that it is accompanied with a puff of air at the time of release.

The Manipuri consonant /tʰ/ is therefore a voiceless aspirated

alveolar stop/ plosive.

+ consonantal

– continuant

+ anterior + aspirated

+ coronal

– sonorant

– voice

/tʰ/ occurs in all positions - initially, medially and finally. /tʰ/ in

the final positions are mostly in loan words.

Initial occurrences

/ tʰəkpə / = to drink

/ tʰibə / = ugly

/ tʰubə / = quick

49

Medially occurrences

/ mətʰək / = up

/ yatʰək / = upper teeth

/ kʰutʰək / = draught

Final occurrences

/ rotʰ / = carriage

/ natʰ / = lord

/ patʰ / = reading

/tʰ/ occurs medially after syllable final voiceless consonant in

some cases

/ cəttʰəbə / = to go on

/ kaptʰokpə / = to shoot out

/ kəktʰəbə / = to cut down etc

50

Some residues are there –

/ leitʰəbə / = to continue

/ kəntʰə / = blanket

/ məntʰəbə/ = to become old etc

/tʰ/ becomes /dh/ after voiced consonants and vowels

/ wandʰəbə / = to soon

/ pʰəmdʰəbə / = to sit down

/ cendʰəbə / = to run

Spellings :

/tʰ/ is represented by the Manipuri letter „ Uö ‟

UEËõYýË / tʰəkpə / = to drink

]UEË / mətʰək / = up

åÌ[ýçU / rotʰ / = carriage etc.

51

The Manipuri plosive Consonant /dʰ/ :

This sound is produced in the same way as [d] except that a

lot of air escapes through the vocal cords while they are vibrating.

This sound is called voiced aspirated alveolar stop/ plosive.

+ consonantal

– continuant

+ anterior + aspirated

+ coronal

– sonorant

+ voice

/dʰ/ occur in all position - initially, medially and finally. The

initial and final occurrence are found only in loan words.

Initial occurrences

/ dʰərmə / = religion

/ dʰəmka / = threat

/ dʰup / = incense

52

Medially occurrences

/ səndʰa / = evening

/ gədʰa / = ass

/ idʰəw / = great grand father

Final occurrences

/ sradʰ / = a ceremony

Spellings :

/dʰ/ is represented by the Manipuri letter „ Wýö ‟

WýÉYËý / dʰup / = incense

GWýç / gədʰa / = ass

؃öçWý / sradʰ / = a ceremony etc.

The Manipuri plosive Consonant /kʰ/ :

This sound is produced in the same way as [k] except that it is

accompanied with a puff of air at the time to release. This sound is

called Voiceless aspirated velar stop/plosive.

53

+ consonantal

– continuant

– anterior + aspirated

– coronal

– sonorant

– voice

It occurs in all the positions: Initial, medial and final. The final

occurrence is found only in loan words.

Initial occurrences

/ kʰaŋ / = pan

/ kʰamen / = brinjal

/ kʰut / = hand

Medial occurrences

/ məkʰa / = under

/ əkʰabə / = bitter

/ ləykʰom / = mud

54

Final occurrences

/ lakʰ / = lakh

Spellings :

/kʰ/ is represented by the Manipuri letter „ Fýö ‟

Fçe / kʰaŋ / = pan

é_ãFç]Ë /ləykʰom / = mud

_çFË / lakʰ / = lakh etc.

The Manipuri plosive Consonant /gʰ/ :

This sound is produced in the same way as [g] except that a

lot of air escapes through the vocal cords while they are vibrating.

This sound called Voiceless, aspirated, velar, stop/plosive.

+ consonantal

– continuant

– anterior + aspirated

– coronal

– sonorant

+ voice

55

It occurs only in initial and final positions in loan words.

Initial occurrences

/ gʰəri / = clock

/ gʰi / = ghee

/ gʰot / = a pot used in worship

Final occurrences

/ jiŋgʰ / = iron sheet

Spellings :

/gʰ/ is represented by the Manipuri letter „ Hýö ‟

H×Ì[ý / gʰəri / = clock

×LIH / jiŋgʰ / = iron sheet.

2.1.1.2 Affricate Consonants

An affricate consonant is produced with a complete

closure of the articulating organs; but the articulators are separated

slowly so that some friction is heard. The friction which is heard

while producing an affricate is of shorter duration than that heard

during the articulation of a fricative.

56

The English Affricate Consonant / ʧ / :

In pronouncing /ʧ/, the tip and blade of the tongue make a firm

contact with the teeth ridge. Simultaneously, the front of the tongue

is raised in the direction of the hard palate. The soft palate is raised

to close the nasal passage of air. The tip of the tongue is then

separated very slowly from the teeth ridge to release the

compressed air. A slight explosion followed by an audible friction is

caused by the escaping air. The vocal cords are open and do not

vibrate. So /ʧ/ is described as a voiceless palato-alveolar affricate.

+ consonantal

– continuant

– anterior – aspirated

+ coronal

– sonorant

– voice

+ high

/ ʧ / can occur initially, medially and finally :

Initial occurrences

chess = / ʧes /

child = / ʧaıld /

choke = / ʧəƱk /

Medial occurrences

57

butcher = / bƱʧə /

picture = / pıkʧə /

nature = / neıʧə /

Final occurrences

catch = / kæʧ /

each = / i:ʧ /

much = / mɅʧ /

Spellings :

/ ʧ / is represented by the letters ch, + ch, t + ure, t + ion, as in :

Chea = / ʧi:p

batch = / bæʧ /

picture = / pıkʧə /

question = / kwesʧən /.

The English Affricate consonant / ʤ / :

/ ʤ / is articulated exactly as / ʧ / except that during the

articulation of / ʤ /, the vocal cords vibrate producing voice. / ʤ / is

thus voiced palato alveolar affricate.

+ consonantal

58

– continuant

– anterior – aspirated

+ coronal

– sonorant

+ voice

+ high

/ ʤ / occurs in all positions – initially, medially and finally :

Initial occurrences

join = / ʤəın /

jar = / ʤa: /

job = / ʤɒb /

Medial occurrences

religion = / rılıʤn /

injure = / ınʤə /

soldier = / soulʤə /

Final occurrences

59

bandage = / bændıʤ /

bridge = / brıʤ /

age = / eıʤ /

/ ʤ / is partially voiced in initial and final positions as is evident from

above.

Spellings :

/ ʤ / is represented by the letters i, g, gg, ge, final „ge‟, di,

gi etc. as in

jump = / ʤɅmp /

revenge = / rıvenʤ /

gin = / ʤın /

soldier = / soulʤə /

suggest = / səʤest /

religion = / rılıʤn /

The Manipuri Affricate Consonant / c / :

In the production of this sound the air passage is blocked by

raising the blade of the tongue to touch the teeth ridge. The soft

60

palate is raised to close the nasal passage. The compressed air is

released by slowly withdrawing the tongue from the teeth ridge and

by slightly raising the front of the tongue towards the hard palate. A

slight explosion followed by an audible friction is caused by the

escaping air. The vocal cords are open and do not vibrate. This

sound is called voiceless, palatal, affricate.

+ consonantal

– continuant

– anterior – aspirated

+ coronal

– sonorant

+ delayed

– voice

+ high

/c/ can occur initially, medially and finally. The final

occurrence is found only in loan words.

Initial occurrences

/ cu / = sugarcane

/ cəru / = straw

/ cenbə / = to run

61

Medial occurrences

/ licət / = behaviour

/ licu / = litchi

/ kucu / = complexion

Final occurrences

/ caməc / = spoon

/ cərc / = church

/ marc / = march

Spellings :

/c/ is represented by the Manipuri letter „ Jô ‟ :

JÇô]Ë / cum / = wall lizard

×_JÇô / licu / = litchi

Jôç]JËË / caməc / = spoon etc.

62

The Manipuri Affricate Consonant / j / :

This sound is produced in the same way as [c] except that the

vocal cords vibrate to produce voice. This sound is called voiced,

alveolar affricate.

+ consonantal

– continuant

– anterior – aspirated

– coronal

– sonorant

+ voice

+ high

It occurs in all the positions. The final occurrence is found

only in loan words.

Initial occurrences

/ jəŋgəl / = jungle

/ jəgoi / = dance

Medial occurrences

/ pʰəjəbə / = beauty

/ həyjraŋ / = A knife

/ ŋajaw / = big fish

63

Final occurrences

/ jəj / = judge

/ jəhaj / = ship

/ səmaj / = society

Spellings :

/j/ is represented by the Manipuri letter „ L ‟ :

LãGç+ / jəgoi / = dance

IøçLç= / ŋajaw / = big fish

a]çLËËË / səmaj / = society etc.

The Manipuri Affricate Consonant / jʰ / :

This sound is produced in the same way as [jʰ] except that

a lot of air escapes through the vocal cords while they are vibrating.

This sound is called breathy voiced alveolar affricate.

64

+ consonantal

– continuant

– anterior + aspirated

– coronal

– sonorant

+ voice

+ high

It occurs initially and medially only in the loan words.

Initial occurrences

/ jʰut / = cheat

/ jʰulon / = name of a festival

/ jʰal / = cymbal

Medial occurrences

/ ojʰa / = teacher

Spellings :

/jʰ/ is represented by the Manipuri letter „Mõ ‟ :

MÉõã_çXË / jʰulon / = name of a festival

CMõçËËË / ojʰa / = teacher etc.

65

2.1.1.3 Nasal Consonants:

A nasal consonant is produced with a release after a

complete oral closure. That is, the oral passage of air is completely

blocked by the articulators coming into firm contact with each other,

but the soft palate is lowered so that the nasal passage of air is

open. The air thus has a free passage through the nose.

The English Nasal Consonant /m/ :

During the articulation of /m/, the two lips are brought

together and thus the oral passage of air is blocked completely. The

soft palate is lowered and the air escapes through the nose. The

vocal cords vibrate producing voice. /m/ is thus a voiced bilabial

nasal.

+ consonantal

– continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

– coronal

+ sonorant

+ voice

/m/ can occur initially, medially and finally :

Initial occurrences

66

man = / mæn /

make = / meık /

milk = / mılk /

Medial occurrences

enemy = / ınımı /

comfort = / kɅmfət /

triumph = / traıəmf /

Final occurrences

some = / sɅm /

come = / kɅm /

room = / ru:m /

(I) / m / approximates to the vowel that follows :

Come = / kɅm /

enemy = / ınımı /

(II) /m/ is partially devoiced when it is preceded by / s / :

Small = / smə:l /

Smart = / smɅt /

smell = / smel /

Spellings :

67

/ m / is represented by the letters : m, mm, mb, mn as in

man = / mæn /

summer = / sɅmə /

comb = / kəƱm /

autumn. = / ə:təm /

The English Nasal Consonant /n/ :

In the production of this sound, the tip of the tongue makes

a firm contact with the teeth ridge, thus blocking off the oral passage

of air completely and releasing it slowly. The soft palate is lowered

so that the air escapes through the nose. The vocal cords vibrate

producing voice. /n/ is thus a voiced alveolar nasal.

+ consonantal

– continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

+ coronal

+ sonorant

+ voice

/n/ can occur initially, medially and finally.

68

Initial occurrences

name = / neım /

no = / nəo /

nice = / naıs /

Medial occurrences

many = / menı /

pond = / pond /

ant = / ænt /

Final occurrences

son = / sɅn /

soon = / su:n /

done = / dɅn /

own = / oƱn /

1. /n/ becomes dental [n] when it is immediately followed by / θ /

and / ð / :

tenth = / tenθ / (/n/ followed by / θ /)

in there = / ınðeə / (/n/ followed by / ð /)

2. /n/ occurs as the syllabic nucleus in certain syllables :

69

sudden = / sɅ-dn /

mutton = / mɅ-tn /

cotton = / kɒ-tn /

3. /n/ is partially devoiced when it is preceded by /s/ in the same

syllable :

sneez = / sni:z /

small = / smə:l /

Spellings :

/n/ is represented by the letters – n, nn, kn, gn, wn etc.

near = / nıə /

running = / rɅnıŋ /

knife = / naıf /

sign = / saın /

Known = / nəƱn /

The English Nasal Consonant / / :

70

During the articulation of /ŋ /, the oral closure is made by the

back of the tongue making a firm contact against the soft palate. The

soft palate is lowered thereby allowing the air to escape freely

through the nose. The vocal cords vibrate producing voice. /ŋ/ is

thus a voiced velar nasal.

+ consonantal

– continuant

– anterior – aspirated

– coronal

+ sonorant

+ voice

/ŋ / can occur only medially and finally.

Medial occurrences

uncle = / Ʌŋkl /

singer = / sıŋə /

longing = / loŋıŋ /

Final occurrences

71

sing = / sıŋ /

bring = / brıŋ /

rung = / rɅŋ /

/ ŋ / is determined by the nature of the adjacent vowels :

young = / jɅŋ / (by /Ʌ/ )

belonging = / beloŋıŋ / (fir / ŋ / by / I /) etc.

Spellings :

/ ŋ / is represented by the letters – ng, n followed by k/c

etc. as in –

sing = / sıŋ /

uncle = / Ʌŋkl /

The Manipuri Nasal Consonant /m/ :

It is produced in the same way as the English consonant /m/.

Hence the Manipuri consonant /m/ is also a voiced, nasal and

bilabial.

+ consonantal

72

+ continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

– coronal

+ sonorant

+ voice

/m/ can occur initially, medially and finally.

Initial occurrences

/ mai / = face

/ miŋ / = name

/ mi / = spider

Medial occurrences

/ səmjet / = comb

/ uməŋ / = forest

/ pʰəmuŋ / = bed

Final occurrences

/ yum / = house

/ səm / = hair

/ cum / = wall lizard

Spellings :

73

/m/ is represented by the Manipuri letter „ ] ‟ :

×]e / miŋ / = name

Uã]ç+ / tʰəmoi / = heart

_]Ë / ləm / = land etc.

The Manipuri Nasal Consonant /n/ :

It is produced in the same way as the English consonant /n/.

Hence the Manipuri consonant /n/ is also a voiced, nasal and

alveolar.

Distinctive features same with the English /n/.

+ consonantal

+ continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

+ coronal

+ sonorant

+ voice

/n/ can occur initially, medially and finally.

74

Initial occurrences

/ na / = ear

/ nuŋ / = stone

/ numit / = sun

Medial occurrences

/ mənuŋ / = inside

/ ŋanu / = duck

Final occurrences

/ in / = fishing net

/ sən / = cow

/ pun / = pitcher

Spellings:

/m/ is represented by the Manipuri letter „ X ‟ :

XÉe / nuŋ / = stone

IøçXÇ / ŋanu / = duck

JôÝXËË / cin / = mouth etc.

The Manipuri Nasal Consonant // :

75

It is produced in the same way as the English consonant / ŋ /.

Hence the Manipuri consonant / ŋ / is also a voiced, nasal and

velar.

Distinctive features same with the English / ŋ /.

+ consonantal

+ continuant

– anterior – aspirated

– coronal

+ sonorant

+ voice

/ ŋ / can occur initially, medially and finally.

Initial occurrences

/ ŋa / = fish

/ ŋək / = neck

/ ŋari / = fermented fish

Medial occurrences

/ əŋaŋ / = child

/ cəŋbə / = enter

/ həŋbə / = ask

/ ciŋbə / = pull

76

Final occurrences

/ məŋ / = dream

/ siŋ / = fire wood

/ noŋ / = rain

Spellings :

/ŋ/ is represented by the Manipuri letter „ I, eø‟ :

Iç / ŋa / = fish

_IËøLç / ləŋja / = vulture

JôÝeø / ciŋ / = hill .

å_çeø / loŋ / = fishing net etc.

2.1.1.4 Fricatives :

A fricative is articulated with a stricture of close

approximation; that is the two articulators are brought so close to

each other that the gap between them is very narrow. The air that is

compressed by pressure from the lungs escapes through the narrow

gap with audible friction.

77

The English Fricative Consonant / f / :

During the articulation of /f/, the lip is brought very closely to

the upper teeth so that the gap between them is extremely narrow.

The soft palate is raised and thus the nasal passage of air is blocked

completely. The air escapes through the narrow gap between the

lower lip and the upper front teeth with audible friction. The vocal

cords are held wide apart and they do not vibrate. /f/ is thus a

voiceless labio-dental fricative.

+ consonantal

+ continuant

+ anterior + aspirated

– coronal

– sonorant

– voice

/f/ can occur initially, medially and finally.

Initial occurrences

five = / faıv /

feed = / fi:d /

found = / faund /

78

Medial occurrences

offer = / ɒfə /

useful = / ju:sfl /

sofa = / səƱfə /

Final occurrences

roof = / ru:f /

safe = / seıf /

loaf = / loƱf /

When /f/ follows a short vowel, it becomes shorter than the one

followed by /v/ as in:

safe = / seıf /

save = / seıv /

Spelling :

/f/ is represented by the letters „f‟ „ff‟, ph, gh etc. as in :

five = / faıv /

coffee = / kɒfı /

physics = / fızıks /

rough = / rɅf /

79

The English Fricative Consonant /v/ :

/v/ is articulated exactly like /f/ except that during the

articulation of /v/, the vocal cords vibrate producing voice. /v/ is thus

a voiced labio-dental fricative.

+ consonantal

+ continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

– coronal

– sonorant

+ voice

/v/ occurs initially, medially and finally.

Initial occurrences

vast = / va:st /

vile = / vaıl /

vole = / vəƱl /

Medial occurrences

never = / nevə /

giving = / gıvıŋ /

divide = / dıvaıd /

80

Final occurrences

of = / ɒv /

glove = / glɅv /

live = / lıv /

When /v/ follows a short vowel, it becomes longer than one which

is followed by /f/ as in :

/ weıv/ and / weıf /

Here, the former vowel is longer than the one in the latter.

Spellings :

/ v / is represented by the letters v, f and ph as in:

over = / əƱvə /

of = / ɒv /

nephew = / nevju:/

The English Fricative Consonant / θ / :

/ θ / is articulated by the tip of the tongue against the

upper teeth, the main part of the tongue being fairly flat. The soft

palate is raised so as to shut off the nasal passage of air. The air

escapes through narrow space between the tip of the tongue and the

front teeth, causing audible friction. The vocal cords do not vibrate.

/ θ / is thus a voiceless dental fricative.

81

+ consonantal

+ continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

+ coronal

– sonorant

– voice

/ θ / can occur initially, medially and finally.

Initial occurrences

thick = / θık /

thin = / θın /

thank = / θæŋk /

Medially occurrences

ethereal = / ıθərıəl /

author = / ə: θə /

nothing = / nɅθıŋ /

82

Final occurrences

oath = / oƱθ /

tooth = / tu: θ /

faith = / feıθ /

/ θ / becomes [θs ] at word-ending when

(i) a short vowel precedes : / smıθs /

(ii) a consonant precedes : / leŋθs /

(iii) an / r / precedes : / bʒ: θs /

/ θ / becomes voiced [ ðz ] at word-endings in other cases :

youths = / ju:ðz /

mouths = / maƱðz /

Spellings :

/ θ / is represented by the letters „th‟ as in thief / θi:f / etc.

The English Fricative Consonant / ð / :

/ ð / is articulated exactly like / θ /, except that during the

articulation of / ð / the vocal cords vibrate producing voice. / ð / is

thus a voiced dental fricative.

83

+ consonantal

+ continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

+ coronal

– sonorant

+ voice

/ ð / occurs initially, medially and finally.

Initial occurrences

then = / ðen /

that = / ðæt /

though = / ðəƱ /

Medial occurrences

other = / Ʌðə /

worthy = / wʒ:ðı /

hither = / hıðə /

Final occurrences

bathe = / beıð /

loathe = / ləƱð /

clothe = / kləƱð /

84

Spellings :

/ ð / is represented by the latters „th‟ as in

this / ðıs /

they / ðeı / etc.

The English Fricative Consonant /s/ :

/s/ is articulated by placing the tip and blade of the tongue

very near the teeth ridge so that the space between them is very

narrow. The soft palate is raised shutting off the nasal passage of

air. The vocal cords do not vibrate. The air escapes through the

narrow gap between the tip and the blade of the tongue and the

teeth ridge with audible friction. /s/ is thus a voiceless alveolar

fricative.

+ consonantal

+ continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

+ coronal

– sonorant

– voice

85

/s/ can occur initially, medially and finally.

Initial occurrences

sink = / sıŋk /

cyst = / sıst /

sigh = / saı /

Medial occurrences

looser = / lu:sə /

buses = / bɅsiz /

racing = / reısıŋ /

Final occurrences

place = / pleıs /

price = / praıs /

coarse = / kə:s /

Spellings :

(i) /s/ is represented by the letters „s, ss‟. „ c ‟ (followed by the

„ e ‟ or „ I ‟) , „ x ‟ (in the medial and the final position) and „ sc ‟ as in :

sin = / sın /

pass = / pɅs/

86

cell = / sel /

ox = / oks /

taxi = / tæksı /

scene = / si:n /

(ii) The „s‟ in the terminations –sive , -sity , is nearly always

pronounced as :

conclusive = / kənklu:sıv /

curiosity = / kjuərıɒsətı /

(iii) The final „ s ‟ preceded by one of the „ a, i, o, u ‟ or y is

pronounced as : /s/

gas = / gæs /

this = / ðıs /

chaos = / keıɒs /

us = / Ʌs / etc.

The English Fricative Consonant /z / :

/z/ is produced exactly like /s/ described above, except that

during the articulation of /z/, the vocal cords vibrate producing voice

/z/ can thus be described as a voiced alveolar fricative.

87

+ consonantal

+ continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

+ coronal

– sonorant

+ voice

/z/ can occur initially, medially and finally .

Initial occurrences

zinc = / zıŋk /

zed = / zed /

zone = / zəƱn /

Medial occurrences

looser = / lu:zə /

lazy = / leızı /

buzzes = / bɅzız /

Final occurrences

knees = / ni:z /

prize = / praız /

hers = / hʒ:z /

88

Spellings :

/z/ is represented by the letters „z‟, „s‟ (in medial and final

position ) , ss and zz as in :

zoo = / zu: /

dogs = / də:gz /

scissors = / sızəz/

Note: Inflexional suffixes {s} and {es} are pronounced /s/ , /z/ for {s}

and {iz} for {es} according to the rules given below

(i) /s/ when the stem ends in voiceless consonants except /s/,

/f/ and / ʧ / as in

cats = / kæts /

cooks = / kƱks / etc.

(ii) /z/ when the stem ends with a voiced sound except /z/,

/ ʒ / , and / ʤ / as in

boys = / bəız /

eggs = / egz /

calls = / kə:lz /

89

(iii) /iz/ when the root ends in /s/ , /z/, / ʃ / , / ʒ /, / ʧ / and / ʤ /

as in

losses = / losız /

buzzes = / bɅzız /

bushes = / bƱʃız /

The English Fricative Consonant / ʃ / :

In the production of / ʃ /, the tip and the blade of the tongue are

brought very close to the teeth ridge . Simultaneously the front of the

tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate. The soft palate is

raised , thereby completely blocking the nasal passage of air. The air

escapes through the narrow passage between the tip, blade and

front of the tongue and the teeth ridge and the hard palate with

audible friction . The vocal cords do not vibrate. / ʃ / is thus a

voiceless palato – alveolar fricative.

+ consonantal

+ continuant

– anterior – aspirated

+ coronal

– sonorant

– voice

90

/ ʃ / occurs initially , medially and finally.

Initial occurrences

she = / ʃi: /

show = / ʃəƱ /

shop = / ʃɒp /

Medial occurrences

condition = / kəndıʃən /

pressure = / preʃə /

concious = / kɒnʃəs /

Final occurrences

finish = / fınıʃ /

push = / pƱʃ /

crush = / krɅʃ /

Spellings

/ ʃ / is represented by the letters sh , ch , s, tio , c , ss , ci as in

sheep = / ʃi:p /

machine = / məʃi:n /

sugar = / ʃƱgə /

nation = / neıʃn /

91

efficient = / ıfıʃnt /

pressure = / preʃə /

conscience = / kɒntʃnts /

The English Fricative Consonant / ʒ / :

/ ʒ / is produced exactly like / ʃ / except that during the

production of / ʒ /, the vocal cords vibrate producing voice . / ʒ / is

thus a voiced palato – alveolar fricative.

+ consonantal

+ continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

+ coronal

– sonorant

+ voice

/ ʒ / occurs medially and rarely finally . It does never occur initially.

Medial occurrences

measure = / meʒə /

invasion = / ınveıʒn /

decision = / dısıʒn /

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Final occurrences

garage = / gæra:ʒ /

beige = / beıʒ /

rouge = / ru:ʒ /

Spellings :

/ ʒ / is represented by the letters si, su, ge as in :

vision = / vıʒn /

leisur = / leʒə /

rouge = / ru:ʒ /

The English Fricative Consonant / h / :

In producing /h/, the vocal cords are kept close together so

that the glottis is very narrow. The air escapes through the narrow

glottis with audible friction. /h/ is thus a voiceless – glottal fricative.

– consonantal

+ continuant

– anterior – aspirated

– coronal

+ sonorant

– voice

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/ h / can occur only initially and medially.

Initial occurrences

hall = / hə:l /

hill = / hıl /

hair = / heə /

Medial occurrences

behind = / bıhaınd /

anyhow = / enıhaƱ /

unholy = / ɅnhəƱlı /

(i) between two vowels / h / may be voiced

behind = / bıhaınd /

beehive = / bi:haıv /

Spellings :

/ h / is always represented by the letter „ h ‟.

The Manipuri Fricative Consonant /s/ :

In the production of this sound the blade of the tongue is

raised towards the teeth ridge and it does not touch the teeth ridge.

There is a narrow space between the blade of the tongue and the

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teeth ridge. The air passing through the narrow passage causes an

audible friction. The soft palate is raised to close the nasal passage.

The vocal cords are open and do not vibrate. This sound is called

voiceless palatal fricative.

+ consonantal

+ continuant

– anterior – aspirated

– coronal

– sonorant

– voice

/ s / occurs in all positions - initially, medially and finally. / s

/ in the final positions are mostly in loan words.

Initial occurrences

/ sən / = cow

/ samu / = elephant

/ səru / = bone

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Medially occurrences

/ punsi / = life

/ leisabi / = girl

/ ŋaosinnəbə / = naughty

Final occurrences

/ ros / = taste

/ bəs / = bus

Spellings :

/s/ is represented by the Manipuri letter „ a, b, `, K÷ ‟

bSËý / sən / = cow

YÇXËaÝË / punsi / = life

`ãGç_Ë / səgol / = horse

K÷ç×TöXË / satin / = umbrella

The Manipuri Fricative Consonant / h / :

96

It is produced in the same way as the English consonant /h/.

Hence the Manipuri consonant /h/ is also a voiceless – glottal

fricative.

+ consonantal

+ continuant

– anterior – aspirated

– coronal

– sonorant

– voice

/ h / can occur only initially and medially.

Initial occurrences

/ hu / = poison

/ hi / = boat

/ huranbə / = thief

Medial occurrences

/ luhup / = crown

/ məhi / = liquid

/ ŋaihak / = a while

Spellings :

97

/ h / is represented by the Manipuri letter „ c÷ ‟

cÉ÷+ý / hui / = dog

]c÷ç= / məhao / = taste

2.1.1.5 Laterals

A lateral consonant is articulated with a complete closure in

the centre of the vocal tract, the air escaping along the sides of the

tongue.

The English lateral consonant / l / :

/ l / is articulated by the tip of the tongue making a firm contact

against the teeth ridge . There is a complete closure in the middle of

the mouth. The soft palate is raised so as to shut off the nasal

passage of the air completely. The sides of the tongues are lowered

so that the lung air is free to escapes along sides of the tongue

without any friction. The vocal cords vibrate, producing voice. / l / is

thus a voiced alveolar lateral.

+ consonantal

+ continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

98

+ coronal

+ sonorant

+ voice

/ l / occurs initially , medially and finally.

Initial occurrences

leaf = / lıf /

letter = / letə /

like = / laık /

Medial occurrences

feeling = / fi:lıŋ /

holiday = / hɒlədeı /

allow = / ələƱ /

Final occurrences

all = / ə:l /

full = / fƱl /

tail = / teıl /

(i) A dental / l / is used when / l / is followed by / θ / or / ð /

99

health = / helθ / ( / l / followed by / θ / )

tell them = / telðem / ( / l / followed by / ð / )

(ii) In RP there are two varieties of / l / one is called clear / l / and

the other, a dark / l /.

Clear / l / is articulated by making a closure in the middle and

simultaneously raising the front of the tongue in the direction of the

hard palate . In RP this variety of / l / is used before vowels and / j / :

live = / lıv /

lure = / ljƱə /

Dark / l / is articulated by making a closure in the middle and

simultaneously raising the back of the tongue in the direction of the

soft palate. In RP it is used before consonant and finally :

told = / təƱld / (befor a consonant)

tell = / tel / (finally)

(iii) In RP / l / is syllabic ( i.e. it functions as the nucleus of the

syllable ) in certain words -

little = / lıtl /

The final / l / is syllabic in these words -

cattle = / kætl /

Spellings :

/ l / is represented by the letters, as in :

100

lost = / lɒst /

full = / fƱl /

called = / kə:ld / etc.

It is to be noted that the letters / l / is silent in words like :

calm = / ka:m /

palm = / pa:m /

alms = / a:mz / etc.

The Manipuri Lateral Consonant / l / :

It is produced in the same way as the English consonant / l /.

Hence the Manipuri consonant / l / is also a voiced alveolar lateral.

Distinctive features same with the English / l /.

+ consonantal

+ continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

+ coronal

+ sonorant

+ voice

/ l / occurs initially , medially and finally.

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Initial occurrences

/ layrık / = book

/ ləy / = flower

/ ləmbı / = road

Medial occurrences

/ maləŋ / = wind

/ malem / = world

/ potləm / = ingredient

Final occurrences

/ pʰiral / = flag

/ pʰol / = result

/ lal / = war / battle

Spellings :

102

/ l / is represented by the Manipuri letter „ _ ‟

é_ý / ləy / = flower

]çã_]Ë / malem / = world

ZõÝÌ[ýç_Ë / pʰiral / = flag

2.1.1.6 Approximants / semi vowels :

Approximants / gliding consonants / semi vowels are

articulated with an open approximation of the articulators so that the

air passes between the articulators without any friction. Thus they

sound vowels - like but they are included in the list of the consonants

because they never function as the nuclei of the syllables.

The English Approximant / r /

In the production of / r /, the tip of the tongue is raised in the

direction of the hinder part of the tooth ridge. The soft palate is

raised so as to shut off the nasal passage of air. The air from the

lungs comes out through the gap between the tip of the tongue and

the post-alveolar region without any friction. The vocal cords vibrate,

producing voice. / r / is thus a voiced post alveolar frictionless

continuant / approximant.

+ consonantal

+ continuant

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– anterior – aspirated

+ coronal

+ sonorant

+ voice

In R.P / r / can occur initially and medially but not finally:

Initial occurrences

read = / rıd /

run = / rɅn /

raw = / rə: /

Medial occurrences

very = / verı /

merry = / mærı /

borrow = / bɒrƱ /

Final occurrences

fear = / feə /

hear = / heə /

better = / betə /

But / r / in RP can occur finally when in a connected speech is

followed by a word beginning with vowel as in :

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here and there = / hıər ən ðeə /

paper and salt = / pepər ən sɑ:lt /

Spellings :

/ r / is represented by the letter r . In RP it occurs only before a

vowel sound as in

red = / red /

run = / rɅn /

dry = / draı /

trial = / traıəl / etc.

/ r / is not pronounced in other positions as in :

Garden = / ga:dn /

early = / ʒ:lı /

jerk = / ʤʒ:k / etc.

Allophonic variants :

105

(i) A voiced post alveolar fricative / r / is used after / a / as in :

dry = / draı /

draw etc: = / drə: /

(ii) A voiceless , post alveolar fricative / r / is used after aspirated

/ p /, / k / and / t / as in :

pray = / preı /

cry = / kraı /

try = / traı /

(iii) A voiced, alveolar single flap-phonetic symbol [r] is used when

/ r / occurs between two vowels and after / θ / as in :

three = / Θr:i / ( / r / after / θ / )

very = / verı /(/r/ between two vowels)

But in special cases / r / occurs even though it is followed by a

word beginning with vowel when the vowel of the syllable in question

is preceded by /r/ and when a pause is possible between two words

as in :

The emperor of Japan = / ðı empərər ɒv ʤəpæn /

he opened the door and walked in = / hi: oƱpnd ðə də: ənd wə:kt ın /

106

Many English people add / r / to words ending in / ə /, / a: / and / ə: /

as in :

the idea of it = / ðı aidiər əv ıt /

the law of England = / ðı lə:r əv ıŋlənd /

Approximant / semi vowel / j / :

In the production of / j / the soft palate is raised, shutting off

the nasal passage of air. The front of the tongue assumes a position

for the vowel between close and half close and quickly glides to the

position of the following vowel. The vocal cord vibrate producing

voice. / j / is thus a voiced unrounded palatel semi vowel .

– consonantal

+ continuant

– anterior – aspirated

– coronal

+ sonorant

+ voice

/ j / can occur initially and medially but not finally.

Initial occurrences

yard = / ja:d /

your = / jə: /

yet = / jet /

Medial occurrences

107

beauty = / bju:tı /

value = / vælju: /

few = / fju: /

view = / vju: /

The lips are normally spread or neutral during the articulation

of / j / but there may be anticipatory lip rounding if the immediately

following vowel is a rounded vowel as in :

you = / ju: /

yawn = / jə:n /

Spellings :

/ j / is represented by the letters y as in :

yes = / jes /

yard = / ja:d / etc.

The letters – u , eau , w , ew and iew are pronounced / jƱ / as in :

unit = / ju:nıt /

beauty = / bju:tı /

due = / dju: /

dew = / dju: /

view = / vju: /

English Approximant / semi vowel / w / :

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Back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate

to the position for a vowel between close and half close and the lips

rounded. Then the tongue quickly glides to the position of the

following vowel. The position of the lip also changes depending upon

the immediately following vowel. The vocal cords vibrate producing

voice. /w/ is thus a voiced rounded lebio - velar semi vowel.

– consonantal

+ continuant

– anterior – aspirated

– coronal

+ sonorant

+ voice

/w/ occurs initially and medially but it does not occur finally.

Initial occurrences

watch = / wɒʧ /

wet = / wet /

white = / waıt /

wool = / wƱl /

win = / wın /

109

Medial occurrences

sweet = / swi:t /

dwelling = / dwelıŋ /

quite = / kwaıt /

reward = / rıwə:d /

away = / əweı /

Spellings :

/w/ is represented by the letters w , wh , q or g + u , in words

one etc as in :

west = / west /

why = / hwaı /

queen = / kwi:n /

one = / wɅn /

Manipuri semi vowel / y / :

It is produced in the same way as the English consonant / y /.

Hence the Manipuri consonant / y / is also a voiced unrounded

palatel semi vowel. Distinctive features same with the English / y /.

110

– consonantal

+ continuant

– anterior – aspirated

– coronal

+ sonorant

+ voice

/y/ occurs initially and medially.

Initial occurrences

/ ya / = teeth

/ yubi / = coconut

/ yoŋ / = monkey

Medial occurrences

/ ciŋya / = foot-hills

/ iya / = my son in law

/ miyam / = people

Spellings :

/ y / is represented by the Manipuri letter „ Ì^ ‟

Ì^É]Ëý / yum / = house

]Ì^ç]ËË /məyam / = many

Manipuri Approximant / semi vowel / w / :

111

In the production of this sound the lips are spread and the

back of the tongue is slightly raised and there is a continuous flow of

air stream. The vocal cords vibrate to produce voice. This sound is

called voiced, bilabial – velar, semi vowel. Distinctive features

same with the English / w /.

– consonantal

+ continuant

– anterior – aspirated

– coronal

+ sonorant

+ voice

/w/ occurs initially and medially.

Initial occurrences

/ wa / = bamboo

/ wahəi / = word

/ waŋbə / = tall

Medial occurrences

/ ləwai / = village

/ iwan / = cooking pot

/ məwun / = skin of man

Spellings :

112

/ w / is represented by the Manipuri letter „ ¾ ‟

¾çaçý / wasa / = bamboo branch

]¾çêc÷Ë / məwahəi / = his word

2.1.1.7 The Manipuri flap/trill Consonant / r / :

In the product on of this sound the tip of the tongue strikes a

single tap against the post alveolar region. The soft palate is raise to

close the nasal passage. The vocal cords vibrate to produce voice.

This sound is called voiced, alveolar, flap/trill.

+ consonantal

+ continuant

+ anterior – aspirated

+ coronal

+ sonorant

+ voice

/ r / occurs initially , medially and finally.

Initial occurrences

/ ras / = a dance

/ rası / = zodiac sign

/ ranı / = queen

113

Medial occurrences

/ məra / = root

/ kʰərə / = some

/ mərum / = shadow

Final occurrences

/ əcar / = pickle

/ car / = sapling

/ sor / = breath

Spellings :

/ r / is represented by the Manipuri letter „Ì[ý ‟

[ýç×Xý / rani / = queen

]Ì[ýÓ]ËË /mərum / = shadow

åaçÌ[ýËË / sor / = breath

114

2.1.2 Contrastive study of English and Manipuri Consonants

Stops/Plosives

/p/

In English and Manipuri language /p/ is [+consonantal],

[+anterior] and [-aspirated]. In both languages, /p/ is bilabial, plosive

stop and voiceless and occurs initially, medially and finally:

English

pin = / pin /

upper = / Ʌpə /

top = / tɒp /

Manipuri

/ pi / = tear

/ ipa / = my father

/ nəp / = phlegm

/pʰ/

In Manipuri language /pʰ/ is [+consonantal], [+anterior] and

[+aspirated]. The Manipuri Consonant /pʰ/ is a voiceless, aspirated,

115

bilabial stop/plosive. It occurs in all positions – initially, medially and

finally(loan words only).

/ pʰubə / = to beat

/ cəpʰu / = pitcher

/ mapʰ / = pardon

It is to be noted that the English stop /p/ has its aspirated form

which is similar with the Manipuri aspirated sound /pʰ/. But the

difference is that the English aspirated form /pʰ/ exist as an

allophone of the phoneme /p/ whereas the Manipuri aspirated sound

/pʰ/ exist as a phoneme not as an allophone. It is also to be noted

that the allophonic form /pʰ/ of the English phoneme /p/ occurs only

initially in a stressed syllable or when it is not preceded by the sound

/s/. The Manipuri /pʰ/ occurs initially and medially in Manipuri words

only while it occurs finally in loan words.

/b/

In English and Manipuri language /b/ is [+consonantal],

[+anterior] and [-aspirated]. In both languages, /b/ is bilabial, plosive

stop and voice and occurs initially, medially and finally:

English

116

Bee = / bı /

rubbe = / rɅbə /

tribe = / traıb /

Manipuri

/ bor / = bridegroom

/ məbu / = her elder brother

/ tolob / = pay

The Manipuri /b/ occurs medially in Manipuri words only while

it occurs initially and finally in loan words.

/bʰ/

It exists only in Manipuri. In Manipuri language /bʰ/ is

[+consonantal], [+anterior] and [+aspirated]. The Manipuri consonant

/bʰ/ is therefore an aspirated, bilabial stop/ plosive and voiced.

/bʰ/ can occur only initially (in loan words) and medially.

/ bʰab / = understanding

/ cəŋbʰəm / = entrance

117

The Manipuri /bʰ/ occurs medially in Manipuri words only while

it occurs initially in loan words.

/t/

In English and Manipuri language /t/ is [+consonantal],

[+anterior] and [-aspirated]. In both languages, /t/ is alveolar, plosive

stop and voiceless and occurs initially, medially and finally:

English

tell = / tel /

obtain = / əbteın

bat = / bæt /

Manipuri

/ tan / = rhythm

/ mətek / = piece

/ tat / = cheating

The Manipuri /t/ occurs medially in Manipuri words only while it

occurs initially and finally in loan words.

118

/tʰ/

In Manipuri language /tʰ/ is [+consonantal], [+anterior] and

[+aspirated]. The Manipuri consonant /tʰ/ is therefore a voiceless

aspirated alveolar stop / plosive.

/tʰ/ occur in all position - initially, medially and finally.

/ tʰəkpə / = to drink

/ yatʰək / = upper teeth

/ rotʰ / = carriage

It is to be noted that the English stops /t/ has its aspirated form

which is similar with the Manipuri aspirated sound /tʰ/. But the

difference is that the English aspirated form /tʰ/ exist as allophones

of the phoneme /t/ whereas the Manipuri aspirated sound /tʰ/ exist as

a phoneme. It is also to be noted that this allophonic form /tʰ/ of the

English phoneme /t/ is different from the English phoneme /θ/ in its

manner of articulation as well as place of articulation though the

sound is similar to some extend. The Manipuri /tʰ/ occurs initially and

medially in Manipuri words only while it occurs finally in loan words.

/d/

119

In English and Manipuri language /d/ is [+consonantal],

[+anterior] and [-aspirated]. In both languages, /d/ is alveolar,

plosive/stop and voiced and occurs initially, medially and finally:

English

day = / deι /

modest = / mɒdιst /

bad = / bæd /

Manipuri

/ dərjı / = tailor

/ mədu / = that

/ rod / = road

The Manipuri /d/ occurs medially in Manipuri words only while

it occurs initially and finally in loan words.

/dʰ/

It exists only in Manipuri. In Manipuri language /dʰ/ is

[+consonantal], [+anterior] and [+aspirated]. The Manipuri consonant

/dʰ/ is alveolar, plosive/stop and voiced. It occurs initially(in loan

words) and medially:

/ dʰup / = incense

/ ibudʰəw / = father‟s father

120

The Manipuri /dʰ/ occurs medially in Manipuri words only while

it occurs initially in loan words.

/k/

In English and Manipuri language /k/ is [+consonantal],

[+anterior] and [-aspirated]. In both languages, /k/ is velar, plosive

stop and voiceless and occurs initially, medially and finally:

English

cut = / kɅt /

reckon = / rekən /

laık = / like /

Manipuri

/ kəı / = tiger

/ ŋəkpə / = to wonder

/ ŋək / = neck

/kʰ/

121

In Manipuri language /kʰ/ is [+consonantal], [+anterior] and

[+aspirated]. The Manipuri consonant /kʰ/ is therefore a voiceless,

aspirated, velar, stop / plosive.

/kʰ/ occurs in all positions: initially, medially and finally(in loan

words.

/ kʰamen / = brinjal

/ ləykʰom / = mud

/ lakʰ / = lac

It is to be noted that the English stops /k/ has its aspirated

form which is similar with the Manipuri aspirated sound /kʰ/. But the

difference is that the English aspirated form /kʰ/ exist as allophones

of the phoneme /k/ whereas the Manipuri aspirated sound /kʰ/ exist

as a phoneme.

/g/

In English and Manipuri language /g/ is [+consonantal],

[+anterior] and [-aspirated]. In both languages, /g/ is velar, plosive

stop and voiced and occurs initially, medially and finally:

English

122

get = / get /

begin = / begın /

big = / bıg /

Manipuri

/ gari / = car/cart

/ sagəy / = clan

/ beg / = bag

/gʰ/

It exists only in Manipuri. In Manipuri language /gʰ/ is

[+consonantal], [+anterior] and [+aspirated]. The Manipuri consonant

/gʰ/ is therefore an aspirated, velar, stop/ plosive and voiced.

/gʰ/ can occur only initially and finally in loan words.

/ gʰəri / = watch

/ gʰi / = ghee

/ jiŋgʰ / = iron sheet

Affricates

123

/ ʧ /

It exists only in English. In English language /ʧ/ is

[+consonantal], [+coronal], [+ high] and [-aspirated]. / ʧ / is palato-

alveolar, affricate and voiceless. It occurs initially, medially and

finally

choke = / ʧəƱk /

butcher = / bƱʧə /

catch = / kæʧ /

/c/

It exists only in Manipuri. In Manipuri language /c/ is

[+consonantal] and [-aspirated]. The Manipuri consonant /c/ is

therefore affricate, palatal, stop/ plosive and voiced.

/c/ can occur initially, medially and finally (in loan words).

/ cenbə / = to run

/ licət / = behaviour

/ caməc / = spoon

The Manipuri /c/ occurs initially and medially in Manipuri words

only while it occurs finally in loan words.

124

/ʤ /

This sound exists only in English, In English language /ʧ/ is

[+consonantal], [+coronal], [+ high], [+ voice] and [-aspirated]. /ʤ / is

palato-alveolar, affricate and voice. It occurs initially, medially and

finally:

job = / ʤɒb /

religion = / rılıʤn /

bandage = / bændıʤ /

/ j /

It exists only in Manipuri. In Manipuri language /j/ is

[+consonantal], [+voice] and [-aspirated]. The Manipuri consonant /j/

is therefore affricate, palatal, stop/ plosive and voiced.

/j/ can occur initially, medially and finally in loan words.

/ jəgoi / = dance

/ həyjraŋ / = A knife

/ səmaj / = society

/ jʰ /

125

It exists only in Manipuri. In Manipuri language /jʰ/ is

[+consonantal], [+voice] and [+aspirated]. The Manipuri consonant

/jʰ/ is therefore affricate, palatal, stop/ plosive and voiced.

/jʰ/ can occur only initially and medially in loan words.

/ jʰulon / = name of a festival

/ ojʰa / = teacher

Nasals

/m/

In English language /m/ is [+consonantal], [+anterior],

[+sonorant], [+ voice] and [-aspirated] while in Manipuri language /m/

is [+consonantal], [+sonorant], [+continuant], [+anterior], [+voice]

and [-aspirated]. In both languages, /m/ is bilabial, nasal and

voiced. It occurs initially, medially and finally:

English

milk = / milk /

enemy = / ınımı /

some = / sɅm /

Manipuri

126

/ mi / = spider

/ səmjet / = comb

/ yum / = house

/n/

In English language /n/ is [+consonantal], [+anterior],

[+coronal], [+sonorant], [+ voice] and [-aspirated] while in Manipuri

language /n/ is [+consonantal], [+sonorant], [+continuant],

[+anterior], [+voice] and [-aspirate]. In both languages, /n/ is

alveolar, nasal and voiced. It occurs initially, medially and finally:

English

nice = / naıs /

many = / menı /

son = / sɅn /

Manipuri

/ numit / = sun

/ mənuŋ / = inside

/ in / = fishing net

/ŋ/

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In English language /ŋ/ is [+consonantal], [+high],

[+sonorant] [+voice] and [-aspirated] while in Manipuri language /ŋ/ is

[+consonantal], [+sonorant], [+continuant], [+voice] and [-aspirate].

In both languages, /ŋ/ is velar, nasal and voiced. In Manipuri it

occurs initially, medially and finally. But in English it can occurs only

medially and finally.

English

/ loŋıŋ / = longing

/ sıŋ / = sing

Manipuri

/ ŋari / = fermented fish

/ cəŋbə / = enter

/ məŋ / = dream

Fricatives

/f/

This sound exists only in English. In English language /f/ is

[+consonantal], [+continuant], [+anterior], and [-aspirated]. /f/ is

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labio-dental, fricative and voiceless. It occurs initially, medially

and finally:

found = / faund /

sofa = / səƱfə /

roof = / ru:f /

/v/

This sound exists only in English. In English language /v/ is

[+consonantal], [+continuant], [+anterior], [+voice] and [-aspirated].

/v/ is labio-dental, fricative and voiced. It occurs initially, medially

and finally:

vole = / vəƱl /

never = / nevə /

of = / ɒv /

/θ/

This sound exists only in English. In English language /θ/ is

[+consonantal], [+continuant], [+anterior], [+coronal] and [-aspirated].

/θ/ is dental, fricative and voiceless. It occurs initially, medially and

finally:

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thank = / θæŋk /

ethereal = / ıθərıəl /

oath = / oƱθ /

/ð/

This sound exists only in English. In English language /ð/ is

[+consonantal], [+continuant], [+anterior], [coronal], [+voice] and [-

aspirated]. /ð/ is dental, fricative and voiced. It occurs initially,

medially and finally:

though = / ðəƱ /

hither = / hıðə /

bathe = / beıð /

/s/

This sound exists in both languages. In English language /s/ is

[+consonantal], [+continuant], [+anterior], [+coronal], and [-aspirated]

while in Manipuri language /s/ is [+consonantal], [+continuant], and [-

aspirated]. In English language, /s/ is alveolar, fricative and

voiceless while in Manipuri /s/ is palatal, fricative voiceless. It

occurs initially, medially and finally in both languages.

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English

sigh = / saı /

looser = / lu:sə /

place = / pleıs /

Manipuri

/ səru / = bone

/ punsı / = life

/ ros / = taste

/z/

. This sound exists only in English. In English language /z/ is

[+consonantal], [+continuant], [+anterior], [+coronal], [+voice] and

[-aspirated]. /z/ is alveolar, fricative and voiced. It occurs initially,

medially and finally:

zone = / zəƱn /

looser = / lu:zə /

knees = / ni:z /

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/ ʃ /

This sound exists only in English. In English language / ʃ / is

[+consonantal], [+continuant], [+coronal] and [-aspirated]. / ʃ / is

palato alveolar, fricative and voiceless. It occurs initially, medially

and finally:

shop = / ʃɒp /

condition = / kəndıʃən /

finish = / fınıʃ /

/ʒ /

This sound exists only in English. In English language / ʒ / is

[+consonantal], [+continuant], [+coronal] [+voice] and [-aspirated]. /ʒ

/ is a palato alveolar, fricative and voiced. It occurs medially and

rarely finally . it does never occur initially.

measur = / meʒə /

garage = / gæra:ʒ /

/h/

In English language /h/ is, [+continuant], [+sonorant], [+ voice]

and [-aspirated] while in Manipuri language /h/ is [+consonantal],

[+continuant], and [-aspirate]. In both languages, /h/ is glottal,

fricative and voiceless. It occurs initially and medially:

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English

hair = / heə /

behind = / bıhaınd /

Manipuri

/ hu / = poison

/ luhup / = crown

Lateral

/ l /

In both language /l/ is, [+consonantal], [+sonorant],

[+continuant], [+anterior], [+coronal], [+voice] and [-aspirated]. Thus,

/l/ is a alveolar, lateral and voiced. It occurs initially, medially and

finally.

English

like = / laık /

feeling = / fi:lıŋ /

all = / ə:l /

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Manipuri

/ ləmbi / = road

/ maləŋ / = wind

/ pʰiral / = flag

.

Approximant / semi vowel

/w/

In English language, /w/ is a voiced rounded labio - velar

semi vowel. While in Manipuri /w/ is a voiced bilabial – velar, semi

vowel and [+sonorant], [+continuant], [+voice] and [-aspirate]. /w/

occurs initially and medially but it does not occur finally..

English

win = / wın /

sweet = / swi:t

Manipuri

/ waŋbə / = tall

/ ləwaı / = rural

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/j/

In English /j/ is a voiced, unrounded, palatel, semi vowel. /j/

is [+sonorant], [+continuant], [+voice] and [-aspirate]. / j / can occur

initially and medially but not finally.

yet = / jet /

beauty = / bju:tı /

/y/

In Manipuri /y/ is a voiced, palatel and semi vowel. /y/ is

[+sonorant], [+continuant], [+voice] and [-aspirate]. /y/ occurs initially

and medially.

/ yoŋ / = monkey

/ cıŋya / = foot-hills

Approximant

/r/

In English /r/ is a voiced post alveolar frictionless

continuant / approximant and [+consonantal], [+sonorant],

[+continuant], [+coronal], [+voice] and [-aspirate].

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In R.P / r / can occur initially and medially but not finally:

raw = / rə:/

very = / verı /

fear = / feə /

Flap/Trill

/ r /

The Manipuri /r/ which is flap has little difference from the

English approximant /r/ in that the former is alveolar while the later is

post alveolar. In Manipuri language /r/ is [+consonantal], [+sonorant],

[+continuant], [+anterior], [+coronal] [+voice] and [-aspirate]. The

Manipuri consonant /r/ is therefore a voiced, alveolar, flap/trill. It

can occurs in all position initially, medially and finally.

/ rasi / = zodiac sign

/ mirum / = shadow

/ sor / = breath

The Manipuri /r/ occurs medially in Manipuri words only while

it occurs initially and finally in loan words

2.2 The Vowels

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Daniel Jones in his “An Outline of English Phonetics” defines

vowels as “a voiced sound in forming which the air issues in a

continuous stream through the pharynx and mouth, there being no

obstruction and no narrowing such as would cause audible friction.”

According to David Crystal a vowel is “a sound made without closure

or audible friction (which can function as the centre of a syllable).

Leonard Bloomfield also defines vowels as “modifications of the

voice sound that involve no closure, friction or contact of the tongue

or lips. They are ordinarily voiced.”

These definitions and for that matter any other definition or

definitions on vowels can briefly be summed up in terms of what J. D

O‟Connor in his “Better English Pronunciation” has stated about the

vowels : “vowels are made by voiced air passing through different

mouth-shapes; the differences in the shape of the mouth (are)

caused by different positions of the tongue and the lips”4 (Better Eng

Pro. p. 79). From this statement it is clear that the production of

vowels depends fully on the degree of raising the tongue without

causing friction or closure on the part of the tongue that is raised and

whether the lips are kept spread, open or rounded. Depending on

those three conditions vowels are classified as (i) high, mid, low or

close, half-close, half open and open according tongue-height (ii)

Front, central and back according to tongue advancement and (iii)

rounded and unrounded according to lip-spreading.

Basing on these classifications, below are given (i) Chart of

English (R. P.) Vowels (ii) Chart of Manipuri Vowels

137

138

From the charts of English and Manipuri Vowels, we find that

there are 12 vowels in English whereas there are only 6 vowels in

Manipuri.

English Vowels :

Short vowels : ı, e, æ, Ʌ, ɒ, Ʊ, ə 0 0 0 0

Long vowels : i:, ɑ:, ɔ:, u:, ʒ: 0 0 0 0

0

Manipuri vowels :

vowels : i, e, a, o, u, ə 0 0 0 0

(No Long vowels)

All these vowels mentioned above are Pure Vowels. So

English have 12 Pure Vowels out of which 7 vowels are short while

five are long. On the other hand Manipuri has 6 Pure vowels.

Besides these Pure Vowels, both the languages have their

respective vowel-glides, otherwise known as Dipthongs. We shall

discuss this later. For the present we shall begin with the description

of the details of the Pure Vowels of the two languages.

2.2.1 Details of the Pure Vowels:

2.2.1.1 The English long vowels:

The English long vowel : /i:/

The English Vowel /i:/ is a long vowel. During the articulation

of this vowel, the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the

hard palate to an almost close position. The lips are spread and the

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opening between the jaws is narrow to medium and thus it is a front,

close unrounded vowel.

– consonantal

+ vocalic

+ high

– back

– low

– anterior

– coronal

– rounded

+ tense

As regards its distribution it can occur initially, medially and finally:

Initial occurrences

eagle = / i:gl /

east = / i:st /

economic = / i:kenomık /

Medial occurrences

Meet = / mi:t /

lead = / li:d /

feel = / fi:l /

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Final occurrences

bee = / bi: /

sea = / si: /

tree = / tri: /

The English long vowel /ɑ:/ :

The English vowel /a:/ is a long vowel. During the articulation

of this vowel, the back of the tongue is in the fully open position; it is

very low in the mouth. The lips are neutral and the opening between

jaws is medium to wide. It is thus a back open unrounded vowel.

– consonantal

+ vocalic

– high

– back

+ low

– anterior

– coronal

– rounded

+ tense

141

It can occur initially, medially and finally in a word :

Initial occurrences

are = / ɑ: /

aunt = / ɑ:nt /

ask = / ɑ:sk /

Medial occurrences

bath = / bɑ:θ /

task = / tɑ:sk /

dark = / dɑ:k /

Final occurrences

laugh = / lɑ:f /

calf = / kɑ:f /

chance = / ʧɑ:ns /

The English long vowel /ɔ:/ :

This English Vowel /ɔ:/ is a long vowel. To articulate this

sound, the back of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate to a

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height between the half-open and half-close position. The two

opening between the jaws is medium to fairly wide.

– consonantal

+ vocalic

– high

+ back

+ low

– anterior

– coronal

+ rounded

+ tense

The vowel sound occurs initially, medially and finally in a word.

Initial occurrences

all = / ɔ:l /

order = / ɔ:dər /

orient = / ɔ:rıent /

Medial occurrences

talk = / tɔ:k /

bought = / bɔ:t /

caught = / kɔ:t /

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Final occurrences

draw = / drɔ: /

law = / lɔ: /

door = / dɔ: /

The English long vowel /u:/ :

The English vowel /u:/ is a long vowel. It is articulated with the

back of the tongue raised to an almost close position towards the

soft palate. The lips are closely rounded and the opening between

the jaws is narrow to medium. Thus it is back close rounded vowel.

– consonantal

+ vocalic

+ high

+ back

– low

– anterior

– coronal

+ rounded

+ tense

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It can occur medially and finally, not initially :

Medial occurrences

food = / fu:d /

fruit = / fru:t /

Final occurrences

blue = / blu: /

to = / tu: /

do = / du: /

The English long vowel / ʒ: / :

This English vowel /ʒ: / is a long vowel. During the articulation

of this vowel the tongue is raised towards the roof of the mouth

which is between the hard palate and the soft palate, to a height

between the half-close and half-open position. The lips are spread

and the opening between the jaws is narrow. Thus it is a central

unrounded vowel between half-close and half-open position.

145

– consonantal

+ vocalic

– high

+ back

– low

– anterior

– coronal

+ rounded

+ tense

It occurs in all the positions, initially, medially and finally :

Initial occurrences

earn = / ʒ:n /

earl = / ʒ:l /

Medial occurrences

Carb = / kʒ:b /

Deart = / dʒcarbθ /

Girl = / gʒ:l /

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Final occurrences

sir = / sʒ: /

far = / fʒ: /

year = / jʒ: /

2.2.1.2 The English short vowels

The English short vowel /ι/ :

The English vowel / ι / is a short vowel. During the articulation

of this vowel, the front part of the tongue is raised in the direction of

the hard palate to a position between the close and the half-close

position. The lips are loosely spread and opening between the jaws

is narrow to medium. It is thus a centralised front unrounded vowel

between close and half-close positions.

– consonantal

+ vocalic

+ high

– back

– low

– anterior

– coronal

– rounded

– tense

147

As regards its distribution, it can occur initially, medially and finally

Initial occurrences

Ιŋk = / ink /

except = / ιksept /

engage = / ιngeιdʒ /

Medial occurrences

fit = / fιt /

give = / gıv /

knit = / nıt /

Final occurrences

heavy = / hevι /

city = / sιtι /

many = / menι /

The English short vowel /e/ :

The English vowel /e/ is a short vowel. During the articulation

of this vowel, the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the

hard palate to a position between the half-close and half-open

positions. The lips are ne

148

utral and the opening between the jaws is medium. Thus /e/ is

a front unrounded vowel between half-close and half-open position.

Regarding its distribution,

– consonantal

+ vocalic

– high

– back

– low

– anterior

– coronal

– rounded

– tense

it occurs initially and medially but it does not occur finally :

Initial occurrences

any = / enι /

evry = / evrι /

epic = / epık /

head = / hed /

ate = / et /

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Medial occurrences

pen = / pen /

says = / sez /

said = /sed/

bury = / berι /

friend = / frend /

leisure = / leʒə /

lemon = / lemǝn /

The English short vowel /æ/ :

This English Vowel /æ/ is a short vowel. This vowel is

articulated with the front of the tongue raised towards the hard

palate to a height between the half-open and open position. The lips

are neutral and the opening between the jaws is medium to wide.

Thus it is a front, unrounded vowel between half-open and open

positions. Regarding its distribution,

150

– consonantal

+ vocalic

– high

– back

+ low

– anterior

– coronal

– rounded

+ tense

it can occur initially and medially but it does not occur finally:

Initial occurrences

apple = / æpl /

absent = / æbsənt /

act = / ækt /

actor = / æktər /

Medial occurrences

cat = / kæt /

man = / mæn /

van = / væn /

tax = / tæks /

exact = / ιgzækt /

151

hang = / hæŋ /

thank = / θæŋk /

damp = / dmp /

The English short vowel / ɒ / :

The English Vowel /ɒ/ is a short vowel. In the production of

this vowel, the back of the tongue is in the fully open position. The

lips are rounded. The opening between the jaws is medium to wide.

Hence, it is a back open rounded vowel

– consonantal

+ vocalic

– high

+ back

– low

– anterior

– coronal

+ rounded

+ tense

As far as its distribution is concerned, this vowel occurs initially and

medially but it does not occur finally:

152

Initial occurrences

off = / ɒf /

often = / ɒfn /

orange = / ɒrιndʒ /

Medial occurrences

pot = / pɒt /

because = / bιkɒz /

cough = / kɒf /

knowledge = / nɒlιdʒ /

austere = / ɒstιər /

long = / lɒŋ /

The English short vowel /Ʊ/ :

The English vowel /u/ is a short vowel. To articulate this vowel

sound, the fore part of the back of the tongue is raised towards the soft-

palate to a height between the half-close and close position. The lips are

rounded and the opening between the jaws and medium. So it is a

unreleased back rounded vowel between close and half-close position.

153

– consonantal

+ vocalic

– high

– back

– low

– anterior

– coronal

– rounded

– tense

It occurs very freely in the medial position and in the weak

form of the preposition in the final position. It does not occur initially:

Medial occurrences

would = / wƱd /

put = / pƱt /

book = / bƱk /

bush = / bƱʃ /

Final occurrences

to = / tə /

do = / də /

The English short vowel / Ʌ / :

154

The English Vowel / Ʌ / is a short vowel. In articulating this

vowel sound, the centre of the tongue is raised towards the roof of

the mouth which is between the hard palate and the soft palate and

to a height between the open and half-open position. The lips are

spread and the opening between the jaw is wide. Thus it is a central

unrounded vowel between open and half-open position.

– consonantal

+ vocalic

– high

+ back

– low

– anterior

– coronal

– rounded

– tense

As regards its distribution, it can occur initially and medially

in a word but it does not occur finally :

Initial occurrences

onion = / Ʌnιən /

oven = / Ʌvn /

other = / Ʌðə /

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Medial occurrences

cut = / kɅt /

monk = / mɅŋk /

The English short vowel / ə / :

This English vowel / ə / is a short vowel. It is articulated using

the tongue position not much different from /ʒ:/.

– consonantal

+ vocalic

– high

+ back

– low

– anterior

– coronal

– rounded

– tense

It occurs in all positions :

Initial occurrences

again = / əgaın /

Medial occurrences

honour = / ɒnə /

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Final occurrences

picture = / pıktʃə /

colour = / kɅlə /

measure = / seilə /

2.2.1.3 The Manipuri vowels

The Manipuri vowel / i / :

The Manipuri vowel /i/ is a short vowel. In the production of

this vowel, the front of the tongue is raised as high as possible,

without touching the hard palate. It is a bit higher than English /ι/.

The lips are spread and the opening between the jaws is narrow. It

is thus a high, front unrounded vowel.

+ high

– back

– low

– rounded

It occurs in all positions : initially, medially and finally :

157

Initial occurrences

/ idʰǝu / = my grand mother

/ ice / = my sister

/ ibə / = to write

Medial occurrences

/ kibə / = to fear

/ pibə / = to give

/ sibə / = to die

Final occurrences

/ pi / = tear

/ hi / = boat

/ mi / = human being.The

Manipuri Vowel /e/ :

The Manipuri vowel /e/ is also a short vowel. The production of

this vowel, is almost similar as in the case of the articulation English

Vowel /e/. This vowel is also a mid-front unrounded vowel.

– high

– back

– low

– rounded

158

It occurs, unlike its counterpart English Vowel in all positions,

Initial (very rare and in loan words only), Medial and Final :

Initial occurrence

/ eka / = one

Medial occurrences

/ tekpǝ / = break

/ tenəwa / = parrot

/ cenbə / = to run

Final occurrences

/ ce / = paper

/ cətle / = has gone

/ kəlle / = has saved

The Manipuri vowel / o / :

This Manipuri vowel /o/ is a short vowel. To produce this

vowel, the back of the tongue is raised between half-close and half-

open (about the height raised for /u/) The lips are spread and the

opening of the jaws is medium.

159

– high

+ back

– low

+ rounded

It occurs in all the positions : initially, medially and finally :

Initial occurrences

/ oina / = left

/ obə / = vomit

/ oja / = teacher

Medial occurrences

/ məkhol / = sound

/ kok / = head

/ pʰol / = result

Final occurrences

/ tʰəro / = lily

/ caro / = eat

/ lak-o / = come on

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The Manipuri vowel /u/ :

It is a short Manipuri vowel. The production of this vowel is

almost same with that of the English vowel /u/ excepting that the

opening of the jaw is narrow comparatively.

+ high

+ back

– low

+ rounded

It occurs in all the positions :

Initial occurrences

/ ubə / = to see

/ una / = leaf

/ umaibi / = eagle

Medial occurrences

/ pisum / = eye brow

/ gun / = quality

Final occurrences

/ məcu / = colour

/ məku / = owl

/ cətlu / = go

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The Manipuri vowel /a/ :

The Manipuri vowel /a/ is a short vowel. To produce this vowel

the central part of the tongue is raised in the same way as is done in

the case of producing the English vowel / Ʌ / .So in this vowel too the

lips are spread and the opening between the jaws is wide. So it is

also a central unrounded vowel between open and half-open

position.

– high

+ back

+ low

– rounded

It occurs in all the positions:

Initial occurrences

/ adə / = over there

/ apel / = apple

/ alu / = potato

Medial occurrences

/ məcak / = material

/ cak / = rice

/ lan / = war

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Final occurrences

/ ka / = room

/ na / = ear

/ ya / = teeth

The Manipuri vowel / ə / :

This Manipuri Vowel / ə / is a short vowel. It is pronounced in

the same way English / ə / is pronounced. Hence its articulation and

lips‟ shapes are not different from those of English / ə /.

– high

+ back

– low

– rounded

This vowel sound also occurs in the language in all positions :

Initial occurrences

/ əmə / = one

/ əni / = two

/ əŋaŋ / = child

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Medial occurrences

/ tən / = bread

/ lən / = wealth

/ hən / = maggot

Final occurrences

/ tabə / = fall

/ cabə / = eat

/ pabə / = read

2.2.1.4 Contrastive study of the Pure Vowels:

The English long vowels are /i:, ɑ:, ɔ:, u:, ʒ:/. All these exist

only in English. Manipuri does not have these long vowels.

English long vowel /i:/

The English vowel /i:/ is a long vowel. As regards its

distribution it can occur initially, medially and finally:

economic = / i:kenomik /

feel = / fi:l /

bee = / bi: /

164

The English short vowel /ι/

The English vowel / ι / is a short vowel. It is a centralized front

unrounded vowel. As regards its distribution it can occur initially,

medially and finally:

engage = / ιngeιdʒ /

knit = / nıt /

many = / menι /

The Manipuri vowel /i/

The Manipuri vowel /i/ is a short, high, front, unrounded vowel.

This Manipuri short vowel /i/ is higher than the English short vowel /ι/

It occurs in all positions: initially, medially and finally:

/ ibə / = to write

/ sibə / = to die

/ mi / = human being

Manipuri does not have the English long vowel /i:/.

But It is to be noted that this Manipuri Vowel /i/, though it is

higher than English Vowel /i/, it is approximal to this vowel as both

are short and hence any Manipuri speaker can easily produce this

sound. Whereas in case of the English vowel /i:/, as the Manipuri

language does not have this sound, a Manipuri speaker finds it

difficult to differentiate between English Vowel /i:/ and /i/. Hence a

Manipuri speaker can hardly distinguish between /si:/ and /i/. To

165

acquire this English vowel by a Manipuri, lots of practices wherein

making his vowel /i/ longer to the extent of attaining simitude is

necessary

The English long vowel /ɑ:/

The English vowel /ɑ:/ is a long vowel. It can occur initially,

medially and finally in a word:

Ask = / ɑ:sk /

Dark = / dɑ:k /

laugh = / lɑ:f /

The English short vowel /ʌ/

The English vowel /ʌ/ is a short vowel. It occurs initially and

medially but it does not occur finally:

other = / Ʌðə /

cut = / kɅt /

The Manipuri vowel /a/

The Manipuri vowel /a/ is a short vowel. This Manipuri short

vowel /a/ is almost similar with the English short vowel /Ʌ/. It occurs

in all the positions:

/ alu / = potato

/ lan / = war

/ ka / = room

166

Manipuri does not have the English long vowel /ɑ:/

But the Manipuri speakers can pronounce the English vowel /

Ʌ / in English words almost similarly as the native speakers of

English do with little efforts.

The English long vowel / ɔ:/

The English vowel /ɔ:/ is a long vowel. It can occur initially, medially

and finally in a word:

Orient = / ɔ:rient /

caugh = / t kɔ:t /

law = / lɔ: /

The English short vowel /ɒ/

The English vowel /ɒ/ is a short vowel. It occurs initially and medially

but it does not occur finally:

Orange = / ɒrιndʒ /

cough = / kɒf /

long = / lɒŋ /

The Manipuri vowel /o/

The Manipuri vowel /o/ is a short vowel. This Manipuri short

vowel /o/ is almost similar with the English short vowel /ɒ/. It occurs

in all positions: initially, medially and finally:

167

/ oja / = teacher

/ pʰol / = result

/ tʰəro / = lily

Manipuri does not have the English long vowel /ɔ:/

The Manipuri speakers do not make the English sound / ɒ /

open enough, they use their vowel /o/ in place of English / ɒ / in

pronouncing most of the English words having / ɒ / sounds. This is

because the tongue position of the Manipuri speakers in producing

their sound /o/ is higher than that of English / ɒ /. So the best way for

the Manipuri speakers to acquire this sound is to hold the tongue as

low down and as far back as possible.

The English long vowel /u

The English vowel /u:/ is a long vowel. It occurs medially and finally

but it does not occur initially:

Fruit = / fru:t /

Blue = / blu: /

The English short vowel /Ʊ/

It occurs very freely in the medium position and in the weak form of

the preposition in the final position. It does not occur initially :

Would = / wƱd /

put = / pƱt /

book = / bƱk /

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The Manipuri vowel /u/

The Manipuri vowel /u/ is a short vowel. This Manipuri short

vowel /u/ is almost similar with the English short vowel /Ʊ/. It occurs

in all positions: initially, medially and finally:

/ umaibi / = eagle

/ yerum / = egg

/ məcu / = colour

Manipuri does not have the English long vowel /u:/ .

The Manipuri speakers do not find difficulty in pronouncing this

English vowel /u/ as there are similarities in the production of their

vowel /u/. The only thing they have to do is to make it lax when they

pronounce an English word containing this vowel sound.

The English long vowel /ʒ

The English vowel /ʒ:/ is a long vowel. It occurs in all the

positions, initially, medially and finally:

earl = / ʒ:l /

girl = / gʒ:l /

sir = / sʒ: /

The English short vowel /ə/

The English vowel /ə/ is a short vowel. It occurs in all the

positions, initially, medially and finally:

169

again = / əgaın /

honour = / ɒnə /

picture = / pıktʃə /

The Manipuri vowel /ə/

The Manipuri vowel /ə/ is a short vowel. This Manipuri short

vowel /ə/ is almost similar with the English short vowel /ə/. It occurs

in all the positions, initially, medially and finally:

/ əŋaŋ / = child

/ tən / = bread

/ cabə / = eat

But Manipuri does not have the English vowel / ʒ: / and

as such Manipuri speakers while learning English, face lot of

inconveniences in pronouncing words having this vowel. They are in

the habit of making this English vowel too open like - /Ʌ/ like /a/

like. Such a fault can generally be remedied by taking care not to

open the mouth too wide and practising the sound keeping the teeth

in contact.

The English short vowel /e/

The English vowel /e/ is a short vowel. As regards its

distribution, it occurs initially and medially but it does not occur

finally:

170

Head = / hed /

Ate = / et /

Said = / sed /

Bury = / berι /

The Manipuri vowel /e/

The Manipuri vowel /e/ is also a short vowel. This Manipuri

short vowel /e/ is almost similar with the English short vowel /e/. It

occurs, unlike its counterpart English vowel /e/ in all positions : initial,

medial and final:

/ eka / = one

/ tekpǝ / = break

/ ce / = paper

Since there are lots of similarities between these two vowels

of English and Manipuri, in learning this sound the learner faces little

or least difficulties.

The English short vowel /æ/

The English vowel /æ/ is a short vowel. As regards its

distribution, it occurs initially and medially but it does not occur

finally:

171

apple = / æpl /

tax = / tæks /

exact = / ιgzækt /

The Manipuri language does not have this sound.

Hence it is very difficult for the Manipuri speakers to articulate

this sound correctly. For them lots of practices are necessary for the

production of this sound correctly in that they have to practice time

and again by saying aloud /e/ and /a/ sounds of their language till

they acquire the correct pronunciation of the sound.

2.2.2 The Diphthongs

A diphthong is defined as “an independent vowel-glide not

containing within itself either a „peak‟ or a „trough‟ of prominence. By

vowel-glide we mean that the speech-organs start in the position of

one vowel and move in the direction of another vowel. By

independent we mean that the glide is expressly made, and is not

merely an unavoidable concomitant of sounds preceding and

following…A diphthong must necessarily consist of one syllable”

(Daniel Jones, „An outline of English Phonetics”. 2001, p.-58).

Following J.D.O. Connor and host of others, we can define a

diphthong more precisely and concisely as a glide from one vowel to

another which, as a whole, acts like one of the long, simple vowels.

172

One end of a diphthong is generally more prominent than the

other, may be due either to greater inherent sonority or to stronger

stress or to a combination of the two. When the beginning of a

diphthong is more prominent than the end, the diphthong is said to

be falling (decrescendo) and when the beginning is less prominent

than the end, the diphthong is said to be rising (crescendo).

A diphthong is represented in phonetic transcription by a

sequence of two letters (digraphs), the first letter representing the

commencement of the glide and the second representing its

termination or its direction of movements.

Sometimes the termination is represented by the semi-vowels

/w/ and /y/ in place of /u/ and /i/ by some writers; but here in this

work we shall take resort to vowel termination in case of English

Diphthongs and semi-vowel termination in case of Manipuri

Diphthongs as they are preferably used in most of the books of

phonology of the two languages.

In English in RP there are eight diphthongs and in Manipuri

there are six diphthongs :

English RP Diphthongs :

/ eι /, / aι /, / əι /, / aƱ /, / əƱ /, / ιə /, / eə /, / Ʊə /

Manipuri Diphthongs :

/ əy /, / əw /, / ay /, / aw /, / oy /, / uy /

The English Diphthongs may be classified into two as follows :

(i) The Closing Diphthongs : / eι /, / aι /, / əι /, / aƱ /, / əƱ /

173

(ii) The Centering Diphthongs : / ιə /, / eə /, / Ʊə /

But all the Manipuri Diphthongs are Closing Diphthongs. They

may also be called Diagonal Diphthongs since all of them have

diagonal glides :

Besides the English Diphthongs may be further grouped into

three as follows : (D‟corner)

(i) those which end in / Ʊ / : / əƱ / , / aƱ /

(ii) those which end in / ι / : / eι /, / aι /, / əι /

(iii) those which end in / ə / : / ιə /, / eə /, / Ʊə /

The Manipuri Dipthongs may also be further grouped into two

as follows :

(i) those which glide towards / y / : / əy /, / ay /, / oy /, / uy /

(ii) those which glide towards / w / : / əw /, / aw /

2.2.2.1 Details of the English Diphthongs

The English Diphthong / əƱ /

During the articulation of this diphthong / əƱ /, the glide is from

the central unrounded vowel / ə / between half-close and half-open

position towards the back rounded vowel / Ʊ / between close and

half-close position / or the semivowel /w/. As regards its distribution,

this diphthong can occur in all three positions : initial, medial and

final :

174

Initial occurrences

ocean = / əƱʃn /

old = /əƱld /

obey = / əƱbeι /

over = / əƱvə /

open = / əƱpən /

Medial occurrences

coat = / kəƱt /

whole = / həƱl /

cold = / kəƱld /

tone = / təƱn /

vote = / vəƱt /

Final occurrences

go = / gəƱ /

foe = / fəƱ /

show = / ʃəƱ /

no/know = / nəƱ /

low = / ləƱ /

175

The English Diphthongs / aƱ /

During the articulation of the diphthong / aƱ /, the glide is from

the back open unrounded vowel near / a / towards the back rounded

vowel /Ʊ/ just above the half-close position. It occurs initially,

medially and finally :

Initial occurrences

out = / aƱt /

owl = / aƱl /

our = / aƱə /

Medial occurrences

scout = / skaƱt /

loud = / laƱd /

house = / haƱs /

town = / taƱn /

Final occurrences

cow = / kaƱ /

now = / naƱ /

how = / haƱ /

176

The English Diphthong / əι / :

While articulating / əι /, the glide starts from the back rounded

vowel between open and half-open (/ ɒ / and / ə: /) and terminates

near to / r /. This Diphthong can occur initially, medially and finally:

Initial occurrences

oil = / əιl /

Medial occurrences

boil = / bəιl /

Final occurrences

boy = / bəι /

The English Dipthong / aι / :

At the time of articulating the diphthong / aι /, the glide begins

from the front open unrounded vowel near / ɑ: / (or cardinal / a /)

and proceeds towards the front unrounded vowel / ι / just above the

half-close position. It occurs initially, medially and finally in a word:

Initial occurrences

ice = / aιs /

Medial occurrences

fine = / faιn /

177

Final occurrences

cry = / kraι /

The English Diphthong / eι / :

During the articulation of / eι /, the glide is from the front

unrounded vowel / e / between half-close and half-open to the front

unrounded vowel / ι / just above the half-close position. It occurs

initially, medially and finally :

Initial occurrence

age = / eιdʒ /

eight = / eit /

aim = / eim /

Medial occurrence

game = / geim /

made = / meid /

break = / breιk /

Final occurrences

day = / deι /

pay = / pei /

they = / ðei /

178

The English Diphthong / ιə / :

During the articulation of / ə /, the glide starts from the front

unrounded vowel / ι / just above the half-close position and moves in

the direction of central unrounded vowel / ə / between half-close and

half-open. As regards its distribution, / ιə / can occur initially,

medially and finally:

Initial occurrences

ear = / ιə /

Medial occurrences

zero = / zιərəƱ /

theatre = / θιətə /

Final occurrences

clear = / klιə /

pier = / pιə /

The English Diphthong / Ʊə / :

During the articulation of / Ʊə / the glide starts from the

back rounded vowel / Ʊ / just above the half-close position and

moves in the direction of the central unrounded vowel / ə / between

half- close and half-open. As for its distribution, / Ʊə / occurs

medially and finally:

179

Medial occurrences

poorly = / pƱəlı /

surely = / ʃƱəlı /

Final occurrences

moor = / mƱə /

tour = / tƱə /

The English Diphthong / eə / :

During the articulation of / eə /, the glide is from the front half-

open unrounded vowel / e / to the central unrounded vowel / ə /

between half-close and half-open. As regards its distribution, this

Diphthong can occur in all the three positions in a word : initially,

medially and finally.

Initially occurrences

aeroplane = / eərəpleιn /

air = / eə /

Finally occurrences

dare = / deə /

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2.2.2.2 Details of the Manipuri Diphthongs

The Manipuri Dipthong / əw / :

The articulation of this Manipuri Diphthong is almost similar

with that of the English Diphthong / əƱ /. Hence here too, the glide is

from the central unrounded vowel / ə / towards the back-rounded

vowel / u / or the semivowel / w /

As regards its distribution. This diphthong can occur in all

three positions: initial, medial and final. The initial occurrence

however is very rare in comparison with the remaining two:

Initial occurrences

/ əw / = yes

/ əwwathəbi / = papaya

Medial occurrences

/ əŋəwbə / = white

. əcəwbə / = big

. / əpəwbə / = coarse

Final occurrences

/ pʰəw / = paddy

/ ŋəw / = palate

/ nəw / = oar

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The Manipuri Diphthong / aw /

This manipuri Diphthong is on a par with the English

Diphthong / aƱ / in articulation. It too glides from the position of the

central unrounded vowel between open and half-open towards the

back rounded vowel / aƱ / or the semivowel / w /. Regarding its

distribution, it occurs medially and finally but not initially:

Medial occurrences

/ kʰawbə / = to reap

/ lawbə / = shout

/ kawbə / = to forget

Final occurrences

/ paw / = news

/ tʰaw / = oil

/ kaw / = bull

The Manipuri Diphthong / ay / :

Like the English Diphthong / aι /, this Manipuri Diphthong / ay /

is also articulated almost similarly by starting the glide from the

central unrounded vowel / a / towards / ι / or the semi-vowel / y /.

It may occur medially and finally in a word but not initially:

182

Medial occurrences

/ paybə / = to hold

/ haybə / = to swing

/ maybə / = the priest

Final occurrences

/ pay / = to read

/ lay / = picture

/ nay / = pus

The Manipuri Diphthong / oy / :

This Manipuri Diphthong / oy / too is articulated almost

similarly like the English Diphthong / əι /. In it also the glide begins

from / o / between half-close and half-open and proceeds towards

/ ι / or the semi-vowel / y /. It can occur initially, medially and

finally:

Initial occurrences

/ oybə / = become

/ oy / = left

Medial occurrences

/ kʰoybə / = curve

/ koybə / = round

183

Final occurrences

/ loy / = exile

/ koy / = beard

The Manipuri Diphthong / əy / :

This Manipuri Diphthong / əy / is articulated by starting the

glide from the position of the vowel / ə / which is a central unrounded

vowel between half-close and half-open towards the position of / ι /,

a high, front unrounded vowel or towards the semi-vowel / y /. It can

occur medially and finally but rarely initially:

Initial Occurrences:

/ əy / = I

/ əykʰoy / = we

Medial occurrences

/ ləybə / = to live ləybə

/ləybə / = to buy

/pəybə / = to heap

Final occurrences

/ ləy / = flower

/ kəy / = tiger

/ pəy / = spleen

184

The Manipuri Diphthong / uy / :

The Manipuri Diphthong / uy / is articulated by starting the

glide from the position of back, high unrounded vowel / u / and then

proceeding towards the position of the high front unrounded vowel

/ ι / or the semi-vowel / y /. It can occur in a word in all the three

positions : initial, medial and final.

Initial occurrences

/ uy / = to see

/ uybə / = to drowse

Medial occurrences

/ kʰuybə / = to fade

/ əkuybə / = of longer duration

Final occurrences

/ luy / = is difficult

/ huy / = dog

185

2.2.2.3 Contrastive study of the Diphthongs

The English Diphthong / əƱ / :

This diphthong can occur in all three positions : initial, medial

and final :

ocean = / əƱʃn /

coat = / kəƱt /

go = / gəƱ /

The Manipuri Dipthong / əw / :

This diphthong can occur in all three positions : initial, medial

and final.

/ əw / = yes

/ əŋəwbə / = white

/ pʰəw / = paddy

As the two languages have an almost similar diphthong the

Manipuri learners do not find difficulties in mastering this diphthong.

However in many cases Manipuri learners/speakers unwittingly use

more often than not long vowel / ə: /, / əw / etc. in place of this

diphthong in some English words such as :

/ lə: / = law in place of / ləw / = low

/ nə: / = no in place of / nəw / = no

/ klə:s / = clows in place of / kləws / = close

186

But these defects can be easily overcome by making the

learns acquaint with the correct pronunciation of these words of

English.

The English Diphthongs / aƱ /

It occurs initially, medially and finally :

out = / aƱt /

scout = / skaƱt /

cow = / kaƱ /

The Manipuri Diphthong / aw /

It occurs medially and finally but not initially:

/ kʰawbə / = to reap

/ tʰaw / = oil

Manipuri speakers can easily pronounce this dipthong in

English as they have “the most suitable variety of / aƱ / to learn”

inherent in their “nationality”

According to Daniel Jones, (pp-108) “To pronounce the

English Diphthong / aƱ / correctly it is not necessary that / u / should

be reached. The proper effect will be given as long as a

considerable portion of the movent towards / u / is performed. In

other words a diphthong of the type / ao / will suffice.

187

The English Diphthong / aι / :

It occurs initially, medially and finally in a word :

Initial occurance

ice = / aιs /

fine = / faιn /

cry = / kraι /

The Manipuri Diphthong / ay /:

It may occur medially and finally in a word but not initially :

/ paybə / = to hold

/ pay / = to read

The Manipuri speakers can pronounce this English Diphthong

almost similarly as the native speakers of English do with little

efforts. Daniel Jones suggests that to pronounce the English

Diphthong / aι / correctly, a certain portion of the movement towards

/ι/ is sufficient to give the proper effect. “In other words, a Diphthong

of the type / ae / will suffice.” (pp 105)

This Diphthong can occur initially, medially and finally :

The English Diphthong / əι / :

oil = / əιl /

boil = / bəιl /

boy = / bəι /

188

The Manipuri Diphthong / oy /:

It can occur initially, medially and finally :

/ oybə / = become

/ kʰoybə / = curve

/ koy / = beard

The Manipuri speakers can articulate the English Diphthong

/ əι / almost similarly like the English speakers though they face little

difficulties in the production of English / ɒ / as they do not make the

English sound / ɒ / open enough. But it does not create much

problem because as suggested by Daniel Jones (pp 111) they “may

learn the Diphthong with sufficient exactitude by starting with the

quality of the English long / ə: / and proceeding immediately to /ι/.”

The English Diphthong / eι /:

It occurs initially, medially and finally:

age = / eιdʒ /

day = / deι /

break = / breιk /

The Manipuri speakers face some problems in articulating this

English Diphthong with an exactitude as they are in the habit of

replacing this English Diphthong by their own Diphthong / əy /.

Therefore it needs some practices for them to replace the beginning

189

vowel / ə / by / e /. If it is done so “the result will be sufficiently near

approximation to / eι /” (Daniel Jones, pp 100).

The Manipuri Diphthong / əy /:

It can occur medially and finally but rarely initially :

/ əykʰoy/ = we

/ ləybə / = to live

/ ləy / = flower

The English language does not have this Manipuri diphthong /əy/.

The English Diphthong / ιə /:

As regards its distribution, / ιə / can occur initially, medially

and finally :

ear = / ιə /

zero = / zιərəƱ /

clear = / klιə /

The Manipuri speakers usually make mistakes by beginning

the Diphthong with long tense / i: / instead of with lax / ι /, besides

which they often finish the Diphthong with some variety of r-sound. It

is very common to hear from them pronouncing here as / hi:ər /

instead of / hιə /. Even if they are able to make lax / ι /, they are

generally not aware that this is the sound to use at the beginning of

190

this Diphthong. It is quite easy for them to correct the above

mispronunciation as soon as they have learnt to make lax / ι /.

The English Diphthong / Ʊə /:

As for its distribution, / Ʊə / occurs medially and finally:

poorly = / pƱəli /

moor = / mƱə /

The most common mispronunciation of / Ʊə / by the Manipuri

speakers is to begin with an / u: / instead of lax / Ʊ /. They often also

add a / r / – sound at the end of the Diphthong when there is an r in

the spelling. Thus it is very common to hear the Manipuri speakers

to pronounce poor as / pu:ər / instead of / pƱə /. It is quite easy for

them to correct such errors as soon as they have learnt to make / Ʊ /

with / ə /.

The English Diphthong / eə /:

As regards its distribution, this Diphthong can occur in all the

three positions in a word : initial, medial and final.

aeroplane = / eərəpleιn /

deə = / deə /

The Manipuri speakers make the mistake of sounding some

kind of /a/ at the end of it or sometimes lengthening / e /. When this

faults have been corrected others generally remain.

191

The Manipuri Diphthong / uy /:

It can occur in a word in all the three positions : initial, medial

and final.

/uy / = to see

/ kʰuybə / = to fade

/ luy / = is difficult

This sound is replaced by the speakers of this language either

by their /a/ or by /ɑ:/ which create difficulties to the native speakers

of English. To acquire the English sound /a:/ they should make their

/a/ fully open.

The Manipuri speakers replace this English vowel /ɔ:/ by their

short vowel /o/. For them a near approach to obtain the English

vowel /ɔ:/ is possible as their vowel /o/ is approximal to English

vowel /ɔ:/; The only thing they have to do is to raise the back of the

tongue to a considerable height when they produce their vowel /o/

and to use sufficient lip-rounding. They should also be careful to

distinguish this sound from the English diphthong /ou/ and their own

dipthongs /əw/ and /aw/.

Manipuri does not have this vowel /u:/ and as such they

usually replace an English word with this sound by their short vowel

/u/ which is unnatural to the English ears. So they should try to

lengthen the production of their vowel /u/ to some degree while

pronouncing an English word having this sound. They should be

taught also why /u/ in book is short and is lose in long.