Brainstorming

What is brainstorming?

Brainstorming is a large or small group activity that encourages students to focus on a topic and contribute to the free flow of ideas.

1. The teacher may begin a brainstorming session by posing a question or a problem, or by

introducing a topic. 2. Students then express possible answers, relevant words and ideas. 3. Contributions are accepted without criticism or judgement and usually summarised on a

whiteboard by the teacher or a scribe as the ideas are called out. 4. These ideas are then examined, usually in a open class Discussion format.

Why use brainstorming?

By expressing ideas and listening to what others say, students adjust their previous knowledge or understanding, accommodate new information and increase their levels of awareness. Brainstorming's main purposes are to:

focus students' attention on a particular topic

generate a quantity of ideas teach acceptance and respect for individual differences

encourage learners to take risks in sharing their ideas and opinions demonstrate to students that their knowledge and their language abilities are valued and

accepted

introduce the practice of idea collection prior to beginning tasks such as writing or solving problems

provide an opportunity for students to share ideas and expand their existing knowledge by building on each other's contributions.

Common issues using brainstorming

Initially, some students may be reluctant to speak out in a group setting, but brainstorming is an

open sharing activity which encourages all students to participate. Teachers should emphasise active listening during these sessions.

Students should be encouraged to:

listen carefully and politely to what their classmates contribute

tell the speakers or the teacher when they cannot hear others clearly and think of different suggestions or responses to share.

Effective brainstorming: how do I achieve it?

1) In a small or large group select a leader and a scribe (or this may be the teacher).

2) Define the problem or idea to be brainstormed. Make sure everyone is clear on the topic being

explored.

3) Set up the rules for the session. They should include:

letting the leader have control allowing everyone to contribute

suspending evaluation of ideas until all ideas are gathered the validity of all contributions recording each answer, unless it is a repeat

setting a time limit and stopping when that time is up.

4) Start the brainstorming. Have the leader select members of the group to share their answers. The scribe should write down all responses, if possible so that everyone can see them. Make sure

not to evaluate or criticise any answers until the brainstorming is complete.

5) Once you have finished brainstorming, go through the results and begin evaluating the responses. This can be done quickly by a show of hands to rank the ideas.

6) Some initial qualities to look for when examining the responses include:

looking for any answers that are repeated or similar

grouping similar concepts together eliminating responses that definitely do not fit

7) Now that you have narrowed your list down somewhat, discuss the remaining responses as a

group.

It is important for the teacher to:

establish a warm, supportive environment emphasise that a quantity rather than the quality of ideas is the goal, and that it's okay for

students to think outside the box

discourage evaluative or critical comments from peers during the ideas-gathering phase encourage and provide opportunity for all students to participate

initially emphasise the importance of listening to expressed ideas, and model printing and recording of the ideas, then read each contribution to the group.

How can I adapt brainstorming?

Use this procedure to plan a classroom activity such as a research project, a field trip, a concert or a party.

Groups and individuals can use brainstorming to generate pre-writing ideas for projects or assignments.

Categorise brainstormed words, ideas and suggestions. Use brainstormed words and sentences for exploring discipline-based jargon.

Case Studies

What are case studies?

Case studies are stories or scenarios, often in narrative form, created and used as a tool for analysis and discussion. They have long been used in higher education, particularly in business

and law.

Cases are often based on actual events, which adds a sense of urgency or reality. Case studies have elements of Simulations, although the students tend to be observers rather than participants.

Why use case study?

Case studies are effective ways to get students to practically apply their skills, and their understanding of learned facts, to a real-world situation. They are particularly useful where situations are complex and solutions are uncertain.

They can serve as the launching pad for a class discussion, or as a project for individuals or small

groups. A single case may be presented to several groups, with each group offering its solutions.

Used as a teaching tool, a case study

engages students in research and reflective discussion encourages higher order thinking facilitates creative problem solving allows students to develop realistic solutions to complex problems develops students' ability to identify and distinguish between critical and extraneous factors enables students to apply previously acquired skills creates an opportunity for students to learn from one another.

Case studies bridge the gap between a more teacher-centred Lecture method and pure problem-based learning. They leave room for teachers to give direct guidance, and the scenarios

themselves provide hints and parameters within which the students must operate.

Common issues using case studies

The challenges with case studies are similar to those with Discussions:

getting students to talk, and keeping the class moving, pointless arguments, which can throw a case analysis off track.

Since case study analysis is student-led, it can be difficult to get the class to move through various stages of analysis and arrive at a reasonable conclusion.

How to teach effectively with case studies

Case content should usually reflect the purposes of the course, and should align with the course learning outcomes, other teaching strategies and assessment in your course or program.

1) Use complex cases requiring multiple perspectives

A good case has sufficient detail to:

necessitate research and stimulate analysis from a variety of viewpoints or perspectives.

It places the learner in the position of problem solver. Students actively engage with the materials, discovering underlying issues, dilemmas and conflict issues.

2) Assess the process of analysis, not only the outcome

The resolution of a case is only the last stage of a process. You can observe or evaluate:

quality of research structural issues in written material organisation of arguments the feasibility of solutions presented intra-group dynamics evidence of consideration of all case factors.

Case studies may be resolved in more than one manner.

3) Use a variety of questions in case analysis

Various ways to use questions in teaching are discussed in detail on the Questioning page. If you are using the Harvard Business School Case Method, when analysing case studies, use a range of question types to enable the class to move through the stages of analysis:

clarification / information seeking (what?)

analysis / diagnosis (why?) conclusion / recommendation (what now?) implementation (how?) and application / reflection (so what? what does it mean to you?)

Debates

What is debate?

Debating is structured way of exploring the range of views on an issue. It consists of a structured

contest of argumentation, in which two opposing individuals or teams defend and attack a given proposition.

Why use debate?

Debate engages learners in a combination of activities that cause them to interact with the

curriculum. It:

forces the participants to consider not only the facts of a situation, but also the implications

encourages participants think critically and strategically about both their own and their opponent's position

encourages engagement with and a commitment to a position, by its competitive nature

encourages students to engage in research develops listening and oratory skills

provides a method for teachers to assess the quality of students' learning.

Debates are also an opportunity for peers to be involved in evaluation.

How to achieve effective debating

Debates range from formal 3-per-side affirmative and negative teams with established roles of first speaker, whip etc., to more informal but structured arguments for or against a proposition.

Here is one method that works:

1. Brainstorm topics and have the students present them as statements with a strong and clear point of view. For example: If introduced, capital punishment would solve the crime

problem. Jobs are more important than the environment.

2. Divide the class into teams of 6 (3 in favour of the motion, 3 against it). To start with, it is best if the students debate their own point of view. Spare students can take on the roles

of time keeper, adjudicator, chairperson. 3. Allow sufficient preparation time. It may be best to set the task and allocate positions in

advance 4. Set the room up appropriately. The illustration below shows one way this can be done. 5. The chairperson introduces the debate.

6. Debaters speak, in the order (i) Affirmative 1 (ii) Negative 1 (iii) Affirmative 2 etc., for an agreed time, which would vary according to experience and age.

As the group gets more experienced

As the group gets more experienced, it is worth renegotiating many of the "rules" to suit their evolving method of debating. For each team:

1. Introduce topic, team's argument and team. (Speaker 1 in the negative can rebut also.) 2. Rebuttal and continue team's case 3. Rebuttal and summary of team's case

Judging should be equally divided between:

Matter (the content) /10 Manner (how the content was presented) /10, and Method (how well they worked as a team) /10

How can I adapt debating?

Introduce peer adjudication.

Use brief, 3-minute debates to practise the skills with less experienced or reluctant students:

1. Students work in groups of four for each topic. Each side has one presenter and one coach to assist in preparation

2. Preparation time is brief, a maximum of 5 minutes to start with 3. One side presents an argument, followed by the other side 4. The class votes on the winning argument through a show of hands.

How can debate be used to evaluate students' learning?

The following can be assessed through debating:

knowledge of content social skills in working with others contextual understanding speaking and listening research skills

Example: Class Debate Ratings Sheet

CRITERIA LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE

1 2 3 4

Organization and Clarity:

viewpoints and

responses are outlined

both clearly and orderly.

Unclear in most

parts

Clear in some

parts but not

over all

Most clear and

orderly in all

parts

Completely clear

and orderly

presentation

Arguments: reasons are

given to support

viewpoint.

Few or no

relevant reasons

given

Some relevant

reasons given

Most reasons

given: most

relevant

Most relevant

reasons given in

support

Examples and Facts:

examples and facts

are given to support

reasons.

Few or no

relevant

supporting

examples/facts

Some relevant

examples/facts

given

Many

examples/facts

given: most

relevant

Many relevant

supporting

examples and

facts given

Rebuttal: arguments

made by the other teams

are responded to and

dealt with effectively.

No effective

counterarguments

made

Few effective

counterarguments

made

Some effective

counterarguments

made

Many effective

counterarguments

made

Presentation Style: tone

of voice, use of gestures,

and level of enthusiasm

are convincing to

audience.

Few style

features were

used; not

convincingly

Few style

features were

used

convincingly

All style features

were used, most

convincingly

All style features

were used

convinci

Discussion

What is discussion?

An effective discussion moves towards one or two major points, but unlike the Lecture, this

process is not controlled by one individual presentation. Rather, the teacher must walk a fine line between controlling the group and letting its members speak.

Why use discussion?

Discussion lets class members work actively with the ideas and the concepts being pursued, and discussion sessions can be an extremely effective in changing behaviour or attitudes. Consequently, teachers use them frequently in instructional situations where the goal is to:

develop problem-solving or critical thinking skills or enable students to articulate a position or an informed opinion.

Common issues using discussion

Most teachers are aware that getting students to talk, and keeping the discussion moving, can be problematic. Another common issue is long digressions or pointless arguments by dominant

students or the whole group, which can throw a discussion off track.

How do I achieve effective discussion?

1) Encourage students to contribute

You can direct a discussion by asking Questions before and during the session. The questions should offer a genuine starting point for debate.

At the beginning of a discussion session, ask students open-ended or multiple-answer questions such as, "What did you think about a particular chapter (or article)?" These have several

advantages:

They decrease the odds that students will be completely unable to answer the que stion. They encourage multiple viewpoints. It is less likely that the most vocal student in the class will answer and dispose of the question

straight away. If you record these multiple responses on the blackboard, you can use them to begin further

topics for discussion; students often participate more freely in discussions when they feel their own concerns and ideas have contributed to the agenda. (See Brainstorming)

2) Direct the discussion

Effective discussion leaders know their students' skills and perspectives. They use this knowledge to decide whom to call on to start a discussion moving in the appropriate direction, and to maintain its momentum.

Send clear signals about the kind of contributions you want.

If you pose a question that asks for real debate, pause long enough for participants to think and respond; this is referred to as "wait time". Not waiting long enough after posing a question is one of the most frequent errors by beginning teachers.

If silence follows after the first person presents an opinion, ask follow-up questions, such as, "How do the rest of you feel about it?"

Alternatively, pursue the topic with the first student by asking them to clarify or elaborate, or analyse further (for example, "What reasons do you have for thinking this?" and "How might someone state the opposite perspective on this point?").

Emphasise that students should listen to each other and not just to you. Model this behaviour by:

building on a student's point withholding judgment until several responses are put forward, or listing the multiple responses on the board and asking the students to regroup them.

Simply negating a student's response and asking another student exactly the same question generally does not help to maintain active participation by all students. How you handle

students" responses is important; just calling on them can have a stifling effect, especially for quieter members of the group.

If a student asks a complex question, or some members of the class don't hear the question,

restate it for the whole class.

3) Control the discussion

A vocal student who dominates a group is a common problem in discussions. Another problem

can occur when the entire class hijacks the discussion and moves it on to another issue.

If you encounter these problems, it may be that the students do not have enough information to engage in the intended discussion. Another possibility is that the topic at hand might be too controversial for them to deal with it objectively.

Sometimes, finding out what students are thinking and how they respond to a given question is

more important than momentary control. Listen for a while until you see the students' agenda clearly; try to summarise the key points they have made, then, if appropriate, ask the group to

connect their points to those you originally made.

4) Aligning discussion with the curriculum

To be truly effective, each discussion session must work within the course as a whole. Never operate without some kind of a curriculum-related plan. Sometimes, your students will comment or raise questions in class that will make you adjust the discussion's objectives, but without a plan to begin with, it is difficult to make these adjustments responsibly.

One way to ensure the alignment of discussion with learning objectives is to assign specific tasks

before each class, such as setting study questions to provide a common ground for the discussion and focus the students on the goals of the course.

Points to consider

If my students left this discussion with one or two key ideas or insights, what would they be? Who are my students?

o What can I assume with absolute certainty that they know? o What evidence do I have for these assumptions? o What misconceptions are they likely to have about the topic? o What misconceptions are they likely to have about what is expected of them in the

class? How important is it that we achieve consensus? On which points will I be most tolerant of divergent viewpoints? With which kind of group process am I most comfortable?

o Do I want to control the whole agenda, or might the students set part of it?

o Do I plan to call on my students? If not, do I have an alternative plan for encouraging participation from the whole group?

o How will I handle digressions? What kinds of digressions are likely? How might I make them work for the goals of this session? How does this class session fit in with the last class discussion? With subsequent ones? With the

course as a whole? Are there parts of this class that would be better served by the lecture format?

Resource (external source)

Useful Tips for the First Tutorial, The Tutor Training Professional Development Online, the University of Melbourne and the University of Sydney

The Flipped Classroom

What is a flipped classroom?

The notion of a flipped classroom draws on concepts such as active learning, experiential learning, student engagement, hybrid course design and course podcasting. This page provides an explanation of the flipped classroom as well as links to resources that will help you in the

design of your activities and approach to this style of learning and teaching.

In the flipped classroom, students complete learning normally covered in the classroom in their own time (by watching videos and/or accessing resources), and classroom time is dedicated to

hands-on activities and interactive, personalised learning, leading to deeper understanding. Students use class time to apply the theory and concepts discussed in the videos, and to utilise techniques including group problem-solving and team building games, simulations, case study

reviews, and group discussions.

There is no single model for the flipped classroom - the term is widely used to describe almost any class structure that provides pre-recorded lectures followed by in-class exercises. The

important aspect is how the videos and other online resources are integrated with the classroom learning.

The following diagram explains one model of the flipped classroom, detailing some of the many

ideas, resources and activities that can be incorporated to provide a rich, experiential learning environment.

The experiential flipped classroom model

a post on Jackie Gerstein's "User Generated Education" blog.

-

Why use flipped classrooms?

The value of a flipped class is in the repurposing of class time into a workshop where students can enquire about lecture content, test their skills in applying knowledge, and interact with one

another in hands-on activities. During class sessions, instructors function as coaches or advisors, encouraging students in individual enquiry and collaborative effort.

The wide range of potential benefits of using a flipped classroom includes, but is not limited to, the fact that it can:

provide an opportunity for reflection be used to revisit important concepts and content, checking understanding and clearing up

misconceptions assist students with accessibility concerns assist students with English as a second language help students revise content assist peer learning and social interaction through collaborative projects teach students to take responsibility for own learning increase student-to-student engagement shift priorities from covering materials to mastering.

Challenges that can arise when using flipped classrooms include:

Students may not be prepared. Time, expertise and effort are needed to create/source videos. A flipped classroom requires careful preparation, and the right mix of out-of-class and in-class

elements. It is not appropriate for some types of content. Students may not immediately understand the value of this model. Equipment and access for students to view video lectures may be an issue. There may be problems with the availability of class spaces that support active and collaborative

work. The flipped classroom entails a change in role of students and staff. Students need to own their

learning and teachers need to become facilitators.

How can I teach effectively using flipped classrooms?

Communicate the rationale behind the flipped classroom to your students. Provide incentives for students to prepare for class. Provide clear connections between in-class and out-of-class activities. Ensure that classroom activities are clearly defined and well structured to suit the purpose.

Allow sufficient time for students to carry out their assignments. Provide facilitation and guidance that supports a learning community. Provide prompt and adaptive feedback on group and project work. Utilise technologies that are familiar and easy to access.

The Flipped Classroom

What is a flipped classroom?

The notion of a flipped classroom draws on concepts such as active learning, experiential learning, student engagement, hybrid course design and course podcasting. This page provides

an explanation of the flipped classroom as well as links to resources that will help you in the design of your activities and approach to this style of learning and teaching.

In the flipped classroom, students complete learning normally covered in the classroom in their own time (by watching videos and/or accessing resources), and classroom time is dedicated to

hands-on activities and interactive, personalised learning, leading to deeper understanding. Students use class time to apply the theory and concepts discussed in the videos, and to utilise

techniques including group problem-solving and team building games, simulations, case study reviews, and group discussions.

There is no single model for the flipped classroom - the term is widely used to describe almost any class structure that provides pre-recorded lectures followed by in-class exercises. The

important aspect is how the videos and other online resources are integrated with the classroom learning.

The following diagram explains one model of the flipped classroom, detailing some of the many

ideas, resources and activities that can be incorporated to provide a rich, experiential learning environment.

The experiential flipped classroom model

Diagram adapted from "Flipped Classroom: The Full Picture for Higher Education", a post on Jackie Gerstein's "User Generated Education" blog.

-

Why use flipped classrooms?

The value of a flipped class is in the repurposing of class time into a workshop where students can enquire about lecture content, test their skills in applying knowledge, and interact with one

another in hands-on activities. During class sessions, instructors function as coaches or advisors, encouraging students in individual enquiry and collaborative effort.

The wide range of potential benefits of using a flipped classroom includes, but is not limited to, the fact that it can:

provide an opportunity for reflection be used to revisit important concepts and content, checking understanding and clearing up

misconceptions assist students with accessibility concerns assist students with English as a second language help students revise content assist peer learning and social interaction through collaborative projects teach students to take responsibility for own learning increase student-to-student engagement shift priorities from covering materials to mastering.

Challenges that can arise when using flipped classrooms include:

Students may not be prepared. Time, expertise and effort are needed to create/source videos. A flipped classroom requires careful preparation, and the right mix of out-of-class and in-class

elements. It is not appropriate for some types of content. Students may not immediately understand the value of this model. Equipment and access for students to view video lectures may be an issue. There may be problems with the availability of class spaces that support active and collaborative

work. The flipped classroom entails a change in role of students and staff. Students need to own their

learning and teachers need to become facilitators.

How can I teach effectively using flipped classrooms?

Communicate the rationale behind the flipped classroom to your students. Provide incentives for students to prepare for class. Provide clear connections between in-class and out-of-class activities. Ensure that classroom activities are clearly defined and well structured to suit the purpose. Allow sufficient time for students to carry out their assignments. Provide facilitation and guidance that supports a learning community. Provide prompt and adaptive feedback on group and project work. Utilise technologies that are familiar and easy to access.

Group Work

Overview

Group work or cooperative learning is a method of instruction that gets students to work together in groups. Employers value a person's ability to work cooperatively. Indeed, studies show that

they value it more highly than the ability to work independently. This is because, in most contemporary workplaces, people work in teams, which are often cross-disciplinary and quite

diverse (DETYA, 2000). The value, to students, of cooperative learning has long been well recognised.

This page discusses the use of group work as a fully-fledged teaching strategy that requires students to engage in learning activities within the same group over a period while working on a

substantial task with a shared outcome (e.g. a report or a project).

When to use

In the past two decades there has been a rapid growth in the use of small group learning experiences in higher education (Fink, 2004), where group work is used:

occasionally in small discussion groups in Lectures and Tutorials, or as a fully-fledged teaching strategy that requires students to engage in learning activities within

the same group over a period while working on a substantial task with a shared outcome (e. g. a report or a project).

Challenges

Although group work has the potential to encourage positive student learning experiences,

research evidence suggests that this potential is not always realised (Fink, 2004, Pieterse & Thompson 2010). Although some students report that their group work projects or tasks are the

best learning experiences of University, others find them the worst, and feel reluctant to work in groups again.

Some students (particularly students who do not feel confident about their ability to

communicate, or to communicate in English) prefer to work independently, and find the group experience challenging and confronting.

Added to this tension is group work's appeal for teachers in the face of increasing class sizes and staff workloads (Burdett, 2003). But teachers often underestimate the effort involved in

organising effective group work. Staff have commented that group work can be time consuming and difficult to implement.

Nevertheless, given the benefits for learning and future employability, it is important that all students have the chance to work in groups during their study at the university.

When it comes to developing students’ group work skills, there is no single best approach or

assessment strategy. It all depends on your particular learning and teaching context and objectives. The challenge is to choose a range of strategies that will allow your students to

develop effective group work skills within the context of your discipline.

Questioning

What is questioning?

The art of asking questions is at the heart of effective communication and information exchange, which underpins good teaching. If you use questioning well, you can improve the student

learning experience in a whole range of Teaching Settings.

Socrates believed that to teach well, an educator must reach into a learner's prior knowledge and awareness in order to help the learner reach new levels of thinking. Recent research into student learning (Biggs and Tang, 2007) and learning from experience (Andresen, Boud and Cohen,

2000) support this view. You can use questions to draw from and build on students' prior knowledge and experience to help them to develop deeper understanding of a topic.

Why use questioning?

Through thoughtful questioning, teachers can not only extract factual information, but help

learners:

connect concepts make inferences

think creatively and imaginatively think critically, and

explore deeper levels of knowing, thinking and understanding.

Developing good questioning skills is particularly important if you use Case Studies in your teaching.

Common issues with questioning

The challenges with questioning are similar to those with Discussions:

getting students to talk, and keeping the discussion moving,

pointless arguments, which can throw a discussion off track.

Sometimes lecturers tend to overuse particular types of questions, for example, only factual or only divergent questions (see question types in the table below). This can hinder the

development of a good debate, or stop students moving through discussion towards a conclusion.

Effective questioning: how do I achieve it?

Use a variety of question types.

Hone your questioning skills by practising asking different types of questions. Monitor your teaching so that you include varied levels of questioning.

Types of questions

There are 5 basic types of questions: factual, convergent, divergent, evaluative and combination.

Factual Factual questions solicit reasonably simple, straightforward answers

based on obvious facts or awareness. They are usually at the lowest level of cognitive or affective processes. Answers are frequently

either right or wrong.

EXAMPLE: What is the name the Shakespeare play about the Prince of Denmark?

Convergent Answers to convergent questions are usually within a very finite range of acceptable accuracy. These may be at several different

levels of cognition (comprehension, application, analysis) or the answerer may have to make inferences or conjectures based on personal awareness, or on material read, presented or known.

EXAMPLE:

On reflecting on the entirety of the play Hamlet, what were the main reasons why Ophelia went mad? (This is not specifically stated in

one direct statement in the text of Hamlet. Here the reader must make simple inferences as to why Ophelia committed suicide.)

Divergent Divergent questions allow students to explore different avenues and

create many different variations and alternative answers or scenarios. Correctness may be:

based on logical projections

contextual, or arrived at through basic knowledge, conjecture, inference,

projection, creation, intuition, or imagination.

Divergent questions often require students to analyse, synthesise, or evaluate a knowledge base and then project or predict different outcomes. Frequently the intention of these types of divergent

questions is to stimulate imaginative and creative thought, or investigate cause-and-effect relationships, or provoke deeper thought

or extensive investigations.

Be prepared for the fact that there may not be right or definitely correct answers to these questions.

EXAMPLE:

In the love relationship between Hamlet and Ophelia, what might have happened to their relationship and their lives if Hamlet had not

been so obsessed with the revenge of his father's death?

Evaluative Evaluative questions usually require sophisticated levels of cognitive and/or emotional or affective judgment. In attempting to answer

evaluative questions, students may be combining multiple logical and/or affective thinking processes, or comparative frameworks.

Often an answer is analysed at multiple levels and from different perspectives before the answerer arrives at newly synthesised information or conclusions.

EXAMPLES:

a) What are the similarities and differences between the deaths of Ophelia and Juliet?

b) What are the similarities and differences between Roman gladiatorial games and modern football?

Combination Combination questions blend any combination of the other 4 types.

Tips and techniques

Plan key questions to provide structure and direction to the lesson. Spontaneous questions that emerge are fine, but make sure to plan the overall direction of the discussion.

Phrase the questions clearly and specifically. Avoid vague and ambiguous questions.

Adapt questions to the level of the students' abilities. Ask questions logically and sequentially.

Ask questions at various levels. Follow up on students' responses. Elicit longer, more meaningful and more frequent responses from students after an initial

response by: o maintaining a deliberate silence

o making a declarative statement o making a reflective statement giving a sense of what the students said o declaring perplexity over the response

o inviting elaboration o encouraging other students to comment.

Give students time to think (wait time) after you ask a question.

Use divergent questions, as the question type that is most likely to produce a range of responses.

Simulations

What is a simulation?

Simulations are instructional scenarios where the learner is placed in a "world" defined by the

teacher. They represent a reality within which students interact. The teacher controls the parameters of this "world" and uses it to achieve the desired instructional results. Students

experience the reality of the scenario and gather meaning from it.

A simulation is a form of experiential learning. It is a strategy that fits well with the principles of Student-Centred and constructivist learning and teaching.

Simulations take a number of forms. They may contain elements of:

a game a role-play, or an activity that acts as a metaphor.

Simulations are characterised by their non-linear nature and by then controlled ambiguity within which students must make decisions. The inventiveness and commitment of the participants usually determines the success of a simulation.

Why use simulations?

Simulations promote the use of critical and evaluative thinking. Because they are ambiguous or open-ended, they encourage students to contemplate the implications of a scenario. The situation

feels real and thus leads to more engaging interaction by learners.

Simulations promote concept attainment through experiential practice. They help students understand the nuances of a concept. Students often find them more deeply engaging than other activities, as they experience the activity first-hand, rather than hearing about it or seeing it.

Simulations help students appreciate more deeply the management of the environment, politics,

community and culture. For example, by participating in a resource distribution activity, students might gain an understanding of inequity in society. Simulations can reinforce other skills

indirectly, such as Debating, a method associated with some large-scale simulations, and research skills.

Common issues using simulations

Resources and time are required to develop a quality learning experience with simulations. Assessment of student learning through simulation is often more complex than with other

methods.

Simulated experiences are more realistic than some other techniques and they can be so engaging and absorbing that students forget the educational purpose of the exercise.

If your simulation has an element of competition, it is important to remind the students that the

goal is not to win, but to acquire knowledge and understanding.

How to achieve effective teaching with case studies

In a simulation, guided by a set of parameters, students undertake to solve problems, adapt to issues arising from their scenario and gain an awareness of the unique circumstances that exist

within the confines of the simulation.

Some simulations require one hour, while others may extend over weeks. Scope and content varies greatly. However, similar principles apply to all simulations.

1) Prepare in advance as much as possible

Ensure that students understand the procedures before beginning. Frustration can arise when too many uncertainties exist. Develop a student guide and put the rules in writing.

Try to anticipate questions before they are asked. Some simulations are fast-paced, and the sense of reality is best maintained with ready responses.

Know what you want to accomplish. Many simulations have more than one instructional goal. Developing evaluation criteria, and ensure that students are aware of the specific outcomes expected of them in advance.

2) Monitor the process closely

Teachers must monitor the simulation process to ensure that students both understand the process and benefit from it. Ask yourself:

Does this simulation offer an appropriate measure of realism for my group of students? Are the desired instructional outcomes well defined? Is the level of ambiguity manageable for this group? Does the student demonstrate an understanding of his/her role? Are problem-solving techniques in evidence? Does the research being generated match the nature of the problem? Is cooperation between participants in evidence? Has the student been able to resolve the issue satisfactorily? Does the student provide meaningful answers to probing questions? Will follow-up activities be necessary?

3) Consider what to assess

You might find it best to use simulations as part of the process of learning rather than as a summative measure of it. Use follow-up activities to establish a measure of comprehension and as a de-briefing mechanism when students return to reality (e.g. use reflection on the process as

the assessable component of the activity, rather than participation in the simulation itself).

Simulations

What is a simulation?

Simulations are instructional scenarios where the learner is placed in a "world" defined by the teacher. They represent a reality within which students interact. The teacher controls the parameters of this "world" and uses it to achieve the desired instructional results. Students

experience the reality of the scenario and gather meaning from it.

A simulation is a form of experiential learning. It is a strategy that fits well with the principles of Student-Centred and constructivist learning and teaching.

Simulations take a number of forms. They may contain elements of:

a game a role-play, or an activity that acts as a metaphor.

Simulations are characterised by their non-linear nature and by then controlled ambiguity within which students must make decisions. The inventiveness and commitment of the participants

usually determines the success of a simulation.

Why use simulations?

Simulations promote the use of critical and evaluative thinking. Because they are ambiguous or open-ended, they encourage students to contemplate the implications of a scenario. The situation

feels real and thus leads to more engaging interaction by learners.

Simulations promote concept attainment through experiential practice. They help students understand the nuances of a concept. Students often find them more deeply engaging than other

activities, as they experience the activity first-hand, rather than hearing about it or seeing it.

Simulations help students appreciate more deeply the management of the environment, politics, community and culture. For example, by participating in a resource distribution activity, students

might gain an understanding of inequity in society. Simulations can reinforce other skills indirectly, such as Debating, a method associated with some large-scale simulations, and

research skills.

Common issues using simulations

Resources and time are required to develop a quality learning experience with simulations. Assessment of student learning through simulation is often more complex than with other

methods.

Simulated experiences are more realistic than some other techniques and they can be so engaging and absorbing that students forget the educational purpose of the exercise.

If your simulation has an element of competition, it is important to remind the students that the

goal is not to win, but to acquire knowledge and understanding.

How to achieve effective teaching with case studies

In a simulation, guided by a set of parameters, students undertake to solve problems, adapt to issues arising from their scenario and gain an awareness of the unique circumstances that exist

within the confines of the simulation.

Some simulations require one hour, while others may extend over weeks. Scope and content varies greatly. However, similar principles apply to all simulations.

1) Prepare in advance as much as possible

Ensure that students understand the procedures before beginning. Frustration can arise when too many uncertainties exist. Develop a student guide and put the rules in writing.

Try to anticipate questions before they are asked. Some simulations are fast-paced, and the sense of reality is best maintained with ready responses.

Know what you want to accomplish. Many simulations have more than one instructional goal. Developing evaluation criteria, and ensure that students are aware of the specific outcomes expected of them in advance.

2) Monitor the process closely

Teachers must monitor the simulation process to ensure that students both understand the process and benefit from it. Ask yourself:

Does this simulation offer an appropriate measure of realism for my group of students? Are the desired instructional outcomes well defined? Is the level of ambiguity manageable for this group?

Does the student demonstrate an understanding of his/her role? Are problem-solving techniques in evidence? Does the research being generated match the nature of the problem? Is cooperation between participants in evidence? Has the student been able to resolve the issue satisfactorily? Does the student provide meaningful answers to probing questions? Will follow-up activities be necessary?

3) Consider what to assess

You might find it best to use simulations as part of the process of learning rather than as a summative measure of it. Use follow-up activities to establish a measure of comprehension and as a de-briefing mechanism when students return to reality (e.g. use reflection on the process as

the assessable component of the activity, rather than participation in the simulation itself).

Teaching Approaches and Strategies

Until recently, research into learning and teaching in universities has focused on what the teacher

does rather than on what the learner does. However, recent research into student learning indicates what your students do in order to learn is of the greatest importance. Following on from this research, educators have developed "learner-centred" or "Student-Centred" pedagogy that

has significantly influenced our understanding of university learning and teaching.

As Thomas Shuell has said, student-centred teaching is built on the assumption that "what the student does is actually more important in determining what is learned than what the teacher

does" (T.J. Shuell, "Cognitive Conceptions of Learning" (1986), 429 ). Therefore, as an important part of our learning and teaching approach, UNSW emphasises student-centred and

active learning approaches to engage students in their learning.

If you want your student-centred learning activities to be effective, communicate the objectives, benefits and expectations to students so that they feel prepared and supported in their learning. In particular, students who are used to more traditional (teacher-centred) teaching will need this

support.

Teaching strategies

The following kinds of activities can be used to facilitate student-centred learning and teaching.

Use these strategies to give students a chance to actively engage with the content and to provide variety within the lecture or tutorial:

Student-Centred Teaching

At UNSW, we encourage you take a student-centred approach to teaching. With student-centred-

teaching, what your students do is as important for their learning as what you as the teacher tell them.

Traditionally, research into learning and teaching in universities has focused on what the teacher

does (discussing, for example, how to develop effective presentations or how to organise study materials), rather than on the learner's experience. But recent research into student learning

indicates what Thomas Shuell expressed so well: "Without taking away from the important role played by the teacher, it is helpful to remember that what the student does is actually more important in determining what is learned than what the teacher does" (T.J. Shuell, "Cognitive

Conceptions of Learning " (1986), 429 ).

In response to this research, educators have developed "learner-centred" or "student-centred" pedagogy, and UNSW encourages teachers to take a student-centred and active learning

approach to designing, implementing and reviewing their courses.

Why does student-centred teaching work so well?

Student-centred teaching allows students to create knowledge, as opposed to passively receiving information, and encourages deep learning. A student-centred approach focuses primarily on

what the student needs to do in order to learn, rather than on the course content or the transmission of information by the teacher.

How do I implement student-centred teaching?

To be student-centred in your teaching, you need to know the following about your students:

Who Are My Learners? Students are individuals. They differ from each other in many ways, including how they like to learn.

What Are They Learning? Your course outline will set out the desired learning outcomes of the course, which in

turn will be aligned with UNSW graduate attributes. Where should you start when you write a course outline?

How Do They Learn?

The answer depends on the students themselves, the nature of the content you're teaching and the learning activities you are devising to enable them to construct their own

learning.

Who are my Learners?

To provide student-centred teaching, you need first of all to know who your students are.

Students in your classes are likely to come from a range of diverse backgrounds. They will have differing aspirations, levels of motivation, attitudes towards teaching and learning and responses

to specific classroom environments and teaching practices.

Approximately 25% of students at UNSW are international students from 130 different countries, bringing diverse knowledge, perspectives and life experiences to the learning

environment. This diversity considerably enriches the university community and allows both students and teachers to learn from each other how to operate in a culturally diverse environment.

Teaching in this context has its own challenges and rewards. A good starting point is to find out

as much as you can about your students (see Understanding Learners), so that you are more able to understand, draw on and explore the diverse skills, attitudes and knowledge your students

bring to the classroom.

Dimensions of student diversity

The following diagram summarises some of the key dimensions of student diversity that may affect learning and teaching. Read about each dimension below to find out its implications for

you as a teacher.

What are my Learners Learning?

This is not a simple question.

This is not a simple question. Your students' learning will cover the curriculum as described in your Course Outline. The curriculum formally documents what completion of the course will

produce. It is:

"... all the planned learning opportunities offered by the organisation to learners ... This includes those activities that educators have devised for learners which are invariably represented in the

form of a written document"—M. Print, 1993, Curriculum Development and Design, 2nd edition, p. 9.

Your course outline will nominate specific types of learning that your students will experience

during their study (e.g. "The development of teamwork and project management skills"). These "learning outcomes" are also often referred to as goals, learning objectives or capabilities, and they describe student achievement.

Learning outcomes can be general or quite specific, so that the student can be directly tested

during their course (e.g. "Can perform long division on 8-digit numbers"). As a rule, course assessment tests whether the students have achieved the stated learning outcomes described in

the course outline.

How do my Learners Learn?

Determining how your students learn is where you have most influence

In student-centred teaching, determining how your students will learn is where you as the class teacher have the most influence.

Keep in mind Thomas Shuell's principle: "... what the student does is actually more important in determining what is learned than what the teacher does." Learner-centred learning allows

students to become creators of knowledge, rather than passive recipients of information. Learning proceeds by a series of interactions or conversations—between teacher and learner in the first instance, but also between one learner and others.

Your task, as teacher, is to plan interactions that will allow students to engage with the particular content, skills and understandings in your course outline. While these learning interactions are

student-centred, it is the teacher and the University who are responsible for their planning and implementation. The quality of these interactions is at the core of learning.

The ways you choose to interact around course content will change according to your learners'

educational needs and the context of the learning. The strategies you use to encourage student learning are sometimes called "teaching methods" or techniques. Choose your teaching methods

with your course learning outcomes in mind.

Understanding Learners

As shown in the diagram on the right, the individual teacher and learner interact within, and are influenced by, the context of each learning experience.

You can hardly influence the wider environments of the Faculty and University, but you can set

up the circumstances in your class to encourage each student to learn. Another page on this site discusses the importance of knowing Who Your Learners Are when you interaction with them and discuss things in class. Theories of learning, too, can inform what you ask students to do in

your classes and how you engage and motivate them. The list of theories relevant to university learning that can help you understand the different ways your students learn is almost endless -

see the Learning Theories website.

nderstanding Content

While your course content is often expressed as a weekly series of topics or activities, it is not

designed that way. Course design begins with a description of the graduate; what someone who completes your course will know, what they can do and how they will behave. At UNSW, most

courses and programs express these overall goals as graduate attributes or capabilities. From this description, content and activities are devised to bring the learner from their current state to that of the graduate.

In a well designed course, each student learning activity, lecture, tutorial, lab session and

assessment task can be related back to this description of the desired graduate and justified as a legitimate learning experience. These activities are constrained by the time, costs and

administrative limitations of the particular Faculty, which results in the inclusion or exclusion of some content. After content has been decided, the implementation or teaching of the course remains. How are those topics and activities going to be addressed in class? What can a student

do to attain and demonstrate the graduate attributes?

A student-centred approach at UNSW is one that focuses on what the student needs to do in order to learn, rather than on what content the course should contain or the information the

teacher needs to convey. You will notice that effective learning outcomes and graduate

capabilities contain a verb—something the learner will be able to perform at assessment. The tables below lists some verbs used in expressing learning outcomes.

Cognitive areas

1) Activities which give evidence of knowing Define, describe, identify, label, list, name, outline, reproduce, recall, select, state, present,

extract, organise, recount, write, measure, relate, match, record.

2) Activities giving evidence of comprehension Interpret, translate, estimate, justify, clarify, defend, distinguish, explain, generalise, exemplify, infer, predict, rewrite, summarise, discuss, perform, report, present, indicate, find, represent,

formulate, contrast, classify, express, compare, recognise, account.

3) Activities giving evidence of application of knowledge/understanding Apply, solve, demonstrate, change, compute, manipulate, use, employ, modify, operate, predict,

produce, relate, show, select, choose, assess, operate, illustrate, verify.

4) Activities giving evidence of analysis Recognise, distinguish between, evaluate, analyse, break down, differentiate, identify, illustrate

how, infer, outline, point out, relate, select, separate, divide, compare, contrast, justify, resolve, examine, conclude, criticise, question, diagnose, categorise, elucidate.

5) Activities giving evidence of synthesis Arrange, assemble, organise, plan, prepare, design, formulate, construct, propose, present,

explain, modify, reconstruct, relate, re-organise, revise, write, summarise, account for, report, alter, argue, order, select, manage, generalise, derive, synthesise, enlarge, suggest.

6) Activities giving evidence of creativity

Originate, image, begin, design, invent, initiate, state, create, pattern, elaborate, develop, devise, generate, engender

7) Activities giving evidence of evaluation Judge, evaluate, assess, discriminate, appraise, conclude, compare, contrast, criticise, justify,

defend, rate, determine, choose, value, question, measure.

Transferable skills

1) Psycho-motor skills

Perform, execute, operate, manipulate

2) Self appraisal and reflection on practice Reflect, identify, recognise, evaluate, criticise, judge

3) Planning and management of learning Plan, prioritise, access, use, select, explore, identify, decide

4) Problem-solving

Identify, choose, select, recognise, implement, define, apply, assess, resolve, propose, formulate, plan

5) Communication presentation

Communicate, express, articulate, question, examine, argue, debate, explain, formalise, respond, rebut, justify, defend, listen, illustrate, demonstrate, organise, pace, model, summarise

6) Interactive and group skills

Accommodate, interact, collaborate, participate, co-operate, co-ordinate,

Theory of Constructive Alignment

One useful educational theory that helps us decide what types of teaching are most appropriate for particular learning outcomes is John Biggs' Theory of Constructive Alignment. This

describes a fundamental principle of curriculum and teaching design that learning outcomes, teaching methods and assessment should "align" or work in unison to facilitate learning. There

are two elements to constructive alignment:

Students construct meaning from what they do. The teacher aligns the planned learning activities with the learning outcomes.

That is, the components of the teaching methods used and the assessment tasks are aligned to the learning activities described in the intended outcomes. This may seem obvious, but it is

surprising how often class activities and assessment tasks are not logically related to the desired learning outcomes. A simple example:

Outcome Learning Activities Assessment

Develop and demonstrate self-management skills

Contribute personal reflections on the professional practice

exercise and Peer assessment

Plan and organise contribution to meet timelines and deadlines in on-line environment

Review progress and identify relevant change

Reflect on and identify development needs

Match personal strengths and

abilities to selected organisational strategies

To successfully select appropriate learning strategies, it is useful to firstly think about the types of learning outcomes possible. As there are so mnay possible outcomes, taxonomies of learning

offer systems for the organisation of learning outcomes. Try to become familiar with the ways these systems group learning outcomes; it will help you to think about class activities differently.

Understanding Learning Processes

Remember, what your student does is actually more important to their learning than what you, as

the teacher, do. Learning activities are what students actually do in your course in order to learn.

How can you construct a learning experience so your students will be able to learn the stated outcomes of your course? You have a vast range of teaching techniques to choose from, ranging from familiar lecture or tutorial through to small group discussions, role plays, group or

individual projects, brainstorming, oral presentations, problem solving activities, debates, etc. (see Teaching Contexts)

The types of learning activities you develop for your course should be based on the particular

learning outcomes that you would like to achieve. Learning activities need to support students in the achievement of course learning outcomes.

When choosing learning activities it is useful to reflect on the learning process and what we actually do when we learn something. There are several models of learning useful in universities,

such as David Kolb's Experiential Learning Model (University of Leicester) and Diana Laurillard's Conversational Model (EduTech Wiki).

One model suggests that in order to learn something you need to do the following:

Stage of learning Examples of related learning activities

Be introduced to it Overviews, preliminary reading, listening to discussion, presentation, websites, media or

video clip

Get to know more about it Lectures, further reading, group discussion, demonstrations, asking questions, relating to

earlier learning experience, interactive websites, audiovisual material, media, research

projects

Try it out Practical projects, discussion of ideas with peers and teachers, design tasks, structured

experiences, role play, skills laboratories, writing

Get feedback Informal and formal feedback with criteria from self, from peers, from teachers, from colleagues, from family and friends

Reflect, adjust and try again Through contemplation, writing, reflective journals, discussion

Source: C. Hughes, S. Toohey and S. Hatherley (1992), "Developing learning-centred trainers and tutors," Studies in Continuing Education 14 (1), 14-27.