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1868• Meiji Restoration begins Japanese

modernization

242

The Civil War and

Reconstruction1861–1877

1861• First Battle

of Bull Run

1863• Lincoln issues

EmancipationProclamation

• Battle ofGettysburg

1861• Czar Alexander II

emancipates Russian serfs

1865• Lee surrenders to Grant at

Appomattox Courthouse

• John Wilkes Boothassassinates Lincoln

Why It MattersThe Civil War was a milestone in American history. The four-year-long struggle determined the

nation’s future. With the North’s victory, slavery was abolished. The war itself introduced modernmilitary innovations such as the use of railroads to move troops, the telegraph to speed

communications, and reliance on conscription in a “total war” effort. After the war, the nationstruggled to bring the South back into the Union during a contentious period known as

Reconstruction.

The Impact TodayThe Civil War and Reconstruction permanently changed the nation.

• The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery, while the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments provided constitutional protections for all American citizens.

• The power of the federal government was strengthened.• The Radical Republicans’ rule so antagonized the South that the

region remained solidly Democratic for nearly a century.

The American Republic Since 1877 VideoThe Chapter 7 video, “Lincoln and the Civil War,” chronicles the president’s efforts to solve the problems between the North and the South.

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1865 1869

▲A. Johnson

1865–1869Grant

1869–1877

1863• French troops occupy

Mexico City

1865• Gregor Mendel’s Law

of Heredity stated 1869• First ships pass

through Suez Canal

1861

Lincoln1861–1865

1868• House

impeachesPresidentJohnson

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243

1871• Unification of

Germany completed;German Empireproclaimed

Charge by Don Troiani, 1990, depicts the advance of the EighthPennsylvania Cavalry during the Battle of Chancellorsville.

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1873 1877

Hayes1877–1881

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1870• Fifteenth

Amendmentratified

1877• Compromise of 1877

ends Reconstructionefforts

1874• First Impressionist art

exhibit launchesModern Artmovement

▼

1873• Sigmund

Freud entersViennaUniversity

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1876• Belgian king Leopold II

begins establishing trading posts inAfrica; European nations begindividing control of Africa

1875• “Whiskey Ring”

scandal breaks

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1873• Panic of 1873

paralyzesnation

▲

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the American RepublicSince 1877 Web site at

and click on Chapter Overviews—Chapter 7 to preview chapterinformation.

tarvol2.glencoe.com

http://tarvol2.glencoe.com

Main IdeaThe North and the South each had distinct advantages and disadvantages at the beginning of the Civil War.

Key Terms and NamesRobert E. Lee, Legal Tender Act, greenback, War Democrat, Copperhead, conscription, habeas corpus, Trent Affair,attrition, Anaconda Plan

Reading StrategyTaking Notes As you read about theNorth and South’s advantages and disadvantages at the start of the CivilWar, use the major headings of the section to create an outline similar to the one below.

Reading Objectives• Assess the strengths and weaknesses of

each region’s economy. • Contrast the political situations of the

Union and the Confederacy.

Section ThemeGroups and Institutions TheConfederacy’s weak central governmenthad difficulty coordinating the war effort.

I. Choosing Sides

II.A.B.

The Opposing Sides

April 1861Robert E. Lee resignsfrom the U.S. Army

244 CHAPTER 7 The Civil War and Reconstruction

Choosing SidesOn the same day that he learned his home state of Virginia had voted to secede from

the Union, Robert E. Lee—one of the best senior officers in the United States Army—received an offer from General Winfield Scott to command Union troops. Although Leehad spoken against secession and considered slavery “a moral and political evil,” hewrote, “I cannot raise my hand against my birthplace, my home, my children.” Instead,he resigned from the army and offered his services to the Confederacy.

While husking corn on his family’s Indiana farm in April 1861, 16-year-old TheodoreUpson heard a neighbor tell his father Jonathan that “the Rebels have fired upon and takenFort Sumter.”

“Father said little,” Upson remembered. However, when the family sat down for dinnerlater, the boy saw that his father “looked ten years older.”

Upson later recalled, “We sat down to the table. Grandma wanted to know what was thetrouble. Father told her and she began to cry. ‘Oh, my poor children in the South. Now theywill suffer!’”

Upson’s father offered to let their Southern relatives come and stay with them at the farm,where he thought they would be safer. “No, they will not do that,” the grandmother replied.“There is their home. There they will stay. Oh, to think that I should have lived to see the daywhen Brother should rise against Brother.”

—adapted from With Sherman to the Sea

November 1861Trent Affair begins

February 1862Congress passesLegal Tender Act

April 1862Confederate Congresspasses conscription law

✦ April 1862✦ April 1861 ✦ October 1861

Theodore Upson

70

60

50

40

30

80

90

100

20

10

0

Resources of the Union and of the Confederacy

Union Confederacy

Population Manufacturedgoods

Exports Merchantships

Miles ofrailroad track

Grainproduction

Number offarms

Ironproduction

Bankingcapital

71%

92%

8%

56%

44%

90%

72%

28%

69% 67%

33%

94%

6%

82%

18%

31%

10%

29%

Source: Historical Statistics of the United States

Lee was only one of hundreds of military officerswho resigned to join the Confederacy. These officersenabled the South to organize an effective fightingforce quickly. So too did the strong military traditionin the South. In 1860 seven of the nation’s eight mili-tary colleges were in the South. These colleges pro-vided the South with a large number of trainedofficers to lead its armies.

Just as the South had a strong military tradition,the North had a strong naval tradition. More thanthree-quarters of the United States Navy’s officerscame from the North. At the same time, the crews ofAmerican merchant ships were almost entirely fromthe North. They provided a large pool of trainedsailors for the Union navy as it expanded.

Explaining Why was the South ableto quickly organize an army?

The Opposing EconomiesAlthough the South had many experienced offi-

cers to lead its troops in battle, the North had severaleconomic advantages. In 1860 the population of theNorth was about 22 million, while the South hadabout 9 million people. The North’s larger popula-tion gave it a great advantage in raising an army andin supporting the war effort.

ECONOMICS

Industry and Agriculture The North’s industriesalso gave the region an important economic advantage

over the South. In 1860 almost 90 percent of thenation’s factories were located in the Northern states.Thus, the North could provide its troops with ammuni-tion and other supplies more easily.

In addition, the South had only half as many milesof railroad track as the North and had only one line—from Memphis to Chattanooga—connecting thewestern states of the Confederacy to the east. Thismade it much easier for Northern troops to disruptthe Southern rail system and prevent the movementof supplies and troops.

Financing the War Both the North and the Southhad to act quickly to raise money for the war. TheNorth enjoyed several financial advantages. Inaddition to controlling the national treasury, theUnion could expect continued revenue from tariffs.Many Northern banks also held large reserves ofcash, which they loaned the government by pur-chasing bonds.

In order to make more money available for emer-gency use, Congress passed the Legal Tender Act inFebruary 1862. This act created a national currencyand allowed the government to issue paper money.The paper money came to be known as greenbacks,because of its color. Although the use of paper moneyhelped to cause inflation—a decline in the value ofmoney—it also enabled the government to pay itsbills and keep the war effort going.

In contrast to the Union, the Confederacy’s finan-cial situation was not good, and it became worse over

1. Interpreting Graphs In which category is the difference betweenthe Union and the Confederacy the greatest?

2. Making Inferences What additional factors are not consideredwhen comparing population percentages between the Union and theConfederacy?

time. Most Southern planters were in debt andunable to buy bonds. At the same time, Southernbanks were small and had few cash reserves. As aresult, they could not buy many bonds either.

The best hope for the South to raise money was bytaxing trade. Shortly after the war began, however,the Union Navy blockaded Southern ports, whichreduced trade and revenues. The Confederacy thenresorted to direct taxation of its people, but manySoutherners refused to pay.

The Confederacy also printed paper money topay its bills. This caused rapid inflation in theSouth, and Confederate paper money eventuallybecame almost worthless. By the end of the war, theSouth had experienced 9,000 percent inflation, com-pared to only 80 percent in the North.

Examining How was having alarger population than the South an advantage for the North?

The Political SituationAs both sides worked to address their various eco-

nomic dilemmas, they also had to contend with avariety of political problems, including opposition tothe war in the North and quarrels over war policies inthe South.

Party Politics and Dissent in the North As theCivil War began, President Lincoln had to grapplewith divisions within his own party. Many membersof the Republican Party were abolitionists. Lincoln’sgoal, however, was to preserve the Union, even if itmeant allowing slavery to continue.

The Republican president also had to contendwith the Democrats, who were divided themselves.One faction, called War Democrats, strongly sup-ported a war to restore the Union but opposed end-ing slavery. Another faction of Northern Democratswere known as the Peace Democrats. This groupopposed the war and called for the reunion of thestates by negotiation rather than force. ManyRepublicans viewed them as traitors and referred tothem as Copperheads, after the poisonous snake.

One major disagreement between Republicansand Democrats concerned the enactment in 1862 of amilitia law that allowed states to use conscription—or forcing people through a draft into military serv-ice—if this was necessary to fill their regiments.Many Democrats opposed the law, and riots eruptedin several strongly Democratic districts in Indiana,Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin.

Criticism also greeted President Lincoln’s decisionto suspend writs of habeas corpus. Habeas corpusrefers to a person’s right not to be imprisoned unlesscharged with a crime and given a trial. A writ ofhabeas corpus is a court order that requires the gov-ernment to either charge an imprisoned person witha crime or let the person go free. When writs ofhabeas corpus are suspended, a person can beimprisoned indefinitely without trial. In this case,President Lincoln suspended the writ for anyonewho openly supported the rebels or encouraged oth-ers to resist the militia draft. In taking such action,Lincoln justified limits on speech in wartime: “Must Ishoot a simple-minded soldier boy who deserts,” thepresident asked, “while I must not touch a hair of awily agitator who induces him to desert?”

GOVERNMENT

Weak Southern Government Although the Southhad no organized opposition party, Confederate presi-dent Jefferson Davis still faced political problems. The

The Income TaxPast: Funding the WarOn July 1, 1862, a new tax law gave the United States acomprehensive federal income tax. A temporary wayof funding the war debt, the tax was repealed in 1872.Another income tax passed in 1894 was challenged in court, and the Supreme Court ruled that a direct taxon incomes was unconstitutional. The SixteenthAmendment (1913) again made the income tax legal.

Present: The IRS TodayToday the income tax is the biggestsource of federal governmentfunding. The Internal RevenueService (IRS) administers the tax,receiving and processing about

200 million returns every year.

$5 greenback


Confederate constitution emphasized states’ rights andlimited the central government’s power. This ofteninterfered with Davis’s ability to conduct the war witha united commitment from every Confederate stategovernment.

Although many Southern leaders supported thewar, some opposed Jefferson Davis when he sup-ported conscription and established martial law earlyin 1862. They objected to the Confederacy forcingpeople to join the army. They also opposed the sus-pension of writs of habeas corpus, which the Southhad also introduced.

Summarizing How were theNorthern Democrats divided over the Civil War?

The Diplomatic ChallengeThe outbreak of the Civil War put the major gov-

ernments of Europe in a difficult situation. TheUnited States government did not want theEuropeans interfering in the war. Confederate lead-ers wanted the Europeans, particularly the British, torecognize the South and provide it with militaryassistance.

Southern leaders knew that European textile facto-ries depended on Southern cotton. To pressure theBritish and French, many Southern planters agreed tostop selling their cotton in these markets until theEuropeans recognized the Confederacy.

In the autumn of 1861, as the European nationsconsidered their course of action, two Confederatediplomats set out from Havana, Cuba, aboard theBritish vessel Trent to meet with European officials.When the Trent left Havana, the Union warship SanJacinto intercepted it and arrested the men.

After several tense weeks, the United States freedthe men, and they continued on their journey to seekEuropean allies. Although their arrest in the so-calledTrent Affair had excited interest worldwide, theirdiplomatic mission failed. In the end, both Britainand France chose not to go to war against the UnitedStates.

Explaining Why was it importantfor the Confederate States to be recognized by the industrial-ized European nations?

The First Modern WarAs they readied for battle, the North and South

were about to embark on what was, in manyrespects, the first modern war. Most of the wars

fought in Europe during the previous two centurieswere fought by small, disciplined armies with lim-ited goals. In contrast, the Civil War involved hugearmies that consisted mostly of civilian volunteersand which required vast amounts of supplies andequipment.

Military Technology and Tactics The Civil Warintroduced new styles of fighting. Traditionally,troops would march toward the enemy in tightcolumns, firing in massed volleys. These were neces-sary tactics earlier in the century because soldiersused smoothbore muskets loaded with round metalballs. These muskets were very inaccurate except atclose range.

By the 1850s, French and American inventors haddeveloped an inexpensive conoidal—or cone-shaped—bullet that could be used in rifles. Rifles fir-ing conoidal bullets were accurate at much greaterdistances. This meant that troops charging at enemylines would be fired upon with more accuracy, pro-ducing much higher casualties.

At the same time, instead of standing in a line,troops defending positions in the Civil War began touse trenches and barricades to protect themselves. Thecombination of rifles and protective cover created situ-ations where the attacking force often suffered veryhigh casualties. High casualties meant that armies hadto keep replacing their soldiers. Attrition—the wear-ing down of one side by the other through exhaustionof soldiers and resources—thus played a critical roleas the war dragged on.

CHAPTER 7 The Civil War and Reconstruction 247

GunpowderThe cannon and rifle fire that echoed throughout the

valleys of Tennessee during Grant’s campaign hadbecome a familiar sound on the battlefields of the UnitedStates and the rest of the world by the mid-1800s. Thekey ingredient in these powerful weapons was gunpow-der. Scholars believe that the Chinese invented thisexplosive mixture and were using it in fireworks and signals as early as the 900s. In 1304 the Arabs used thepowder to develop the first gun. In the centuries that fol-lowed, numerous nations would develop and improveon the gun—which made all other weapons before itobsolete. For what peaceful purposes can gun-powder be used?

The South’s Strategy Early in the war, JeffersonDavis imagined a struggle similar to the Americanwar for independence against Britain. Like GeorgeWashington, Southern generals would pick their bat-tles carefully, attacking and retreating when necessary to avoid heavy losses. By waging a defen-sive war of attrition, Davis believed the South couldforce the Union to spend its resources until it becametired of the war and agreed to negotiate.

Much like Lincoln in the North, however, PresidentDavis felt pressure to strike for a quick victory. Manystrategists of this era were influenced by Napoleon’sbattle strategy in his European wars: Victory shouldcome with one climactic battle. Many Southerners

also believed that their military traditions madethem superior fighters, and they scorned defen-sive warfare. In the war, Southern troops went onthe offensive in eight battles, suffering 20,000more casualties than the Union by chargingenemy lines. These were heavy losses the Southcould not afford.

The Union’s Anaconda Plan Early in the war,the general in chief of the United States,Winfield Scott, proposed a strategy for defeat-ing the South. Scott suggested that the Unionblockade Confederate ports and send gunboatsdown the Mississippi River to divide theConfederacy in two. The South, thus separated,would gradually run out of resources and sur-render. The plan would take time, Scott admit-ted, but it would defeat the South with the leastamount of bloodshed.

Many Northerners rejected the plan as too slowand indirect for certain victory, favoring instead astrong, quick invasion of the South. Northern news-papers scorned this strategy, which they called theAnaconda Plan, after the snake that slowly stranglesits prey to death. Lincoln eventually agreed to imple-ment Scott’s suggestions and imposed a blockade ofSouthern ports. Ultimately, however, he and otherUnion leaders realized that only a long war thatfocused on destroying the South’s armies had anychance of success.

Describing What war strategy didJefferson Davis develop for the South?

Writing About History

Checking for Understanding1. Define: greenback, conscription,

habeas corpus, attrition.2. Identify: Robert E. Lee, Legal Tender

Act, War Democrat, Copperhead, TrentAffair, Anaconda Plan.

3. Explain why Robert E. Lee refusedLincoln’s offer to command Uniontroops.

Reviewing Themes4. Groups and Institutions How did a

belief in states’ rights hamper the Southduring the war?

Critical Thinking5. Comparing Why did the North have an

economic advantage over the South?6. Analyzing Why did the South resort to

using paper money during the war?7. Organizing Using a graphic organizer

similar to the one below, list the mili-tary innovations of the Civil War era.

Analyzing Visuals8. Analyzing Charts Examine the chart

on the Anaconda Plan on this page.How would a naval blockade accom-plish several goals of the AnacondaPlan at once?

MilitaryInnovations

9. Descriptive Writing Imagine that youare living in one of the border states atthe beginning of the Civil War. Write aletter to a relative explaining why youplan to join either the Union orConfederate army.


•Control the Mississippiwith Union gunboats

•Divide the eastern part ofthe Confederacy from thewestern part

•Capture New Orleans,Vicksburg, and Memphis

•Cut off shipping to andfrom interior

The Anaconda Plan

•Blockade Southern ports on the Atlantic

•Isolate the Confederacy from European aid and

trade

•Cut off flow of supplies,equipment, money, foodand cotton

•Exhaust Southern resources, forcing

surrender

On July 21, 1861—a hot, sultry Sunday perfect for family outings—hundreds of peoplefrom Washington, D.C., picnicked along Bull Run near the northern Virginia town of ManassasJunction. They had gathered to watch the first battle between the Union and Confederateforces.

“The spectators were all excited,” one reporter wrote, “and a lady with an opera glasswho was near me was quite beside herself when an unusually heavy discharge roused thecurrent of her blood: “That is splendid! Oh, my! Is not that first-rate?”

The spectators who came to Bull Run expected a short, exciting fight and a quick surren-der by the rebel troops. Unexpectedly, the Confederates routed the Union army. A reporterwith the Boston Journal, Charles Coffin, described the chaos:

“Men fall. . . . They are bleeding, torn, and mangled. . . . The trees are splintered,crushed, and broken, as if smitten by thunderbolts. . . . There is smoke, dust, wild talking,shouting; hissings, howlings, explosions. It is a new, strange, unanticipated experience to thesoldiers of both armies, far different from what they thought it would be.”

—quoted in Voices of the Civil War

1861Confederates defeat Union forces atFirst Battle of Bull Run (Manassas)

✦ 1862

Mobilizing the TroopsDuring the first few months of the war, President Lincoln felt tremendous pressure to

strike hard against the South. He approved an assault on Confederate troops gatheredonly 25 miles (40 km) south of Washington, D.C. The First Battle of Bull Run, as it cameto be called, started well for the Union as it forced Confederate troops to retreat.

The Early Stages

April 186220,000 casualtiesat Battle of Shiloh

September 186223,000 casualties atBattle of Antietam

1863The EmancipationProclamation takes effect


✦ 1861

Civil War cannon near Bull Run in Manassas National

Battlefield Park

✦ 1863

Main IdeaUnion forces suffered defeat in Virginia,advanced down the Mississippi, andstopped the South’s invasion ofMaryland.

Key Terms and Names“Stonewall” Jackson, bounty, blockaderunner, David G. Farragut, Ulysses S.Grant, Emancipation Proclamation, hardtack, prisoner of war

Reading StrategyCategorizing As you read about theearly battles of the Civil War, complete achart similar to the one below by filling inthe results of each battle listed.

Reading Objectives• Describe the progress of the war in

the West and the East.• Evaluate the soldiers’ wartime

experiences.

Section ThemeGeography and History The Unionhoped to seize the Mississippi River valley and cut the Confederacy in two.

Battle Results

First Battle of Bull Run

Battle of Shiloh

Seven Days’ Battle

Second Battle of Bull Run

Southerners hoped to break the Union blockade with a secretweapon—an iron-plated ship built by covering the hull of thewooden ship Merrimack, a captured Union warship, with iron. Thearmored vessel, renamed the Virginia, could easily withstand Unioncannon fire.

On March 8, 1862, the Virginia sank two Union ships guardingthe James River at Hampton Roads, Virginia. On the worst day of thewar for the Union navy, 240 sailors died. The next day, the Union’sown ironclad ship, the newly completed Monitor, challenged theVirginia. The two ships fought for hours, but neither could deliver adecisive blow. Although the vessels never fought again, the Monitor’spresence kept the Virginia from breaking the Northern blockade.

Young boys known as “powdermonkeys” often carried the explosive

charges on Union naval vessels.

The Confederate cause was saved when reinforce-ments from Virginia under Thomas J. Jacksonarrived. The commander of the retreating troopsyelled: “There is Jackson standing like a stone wall!Rally behind the Virginians!” Jackson became knownas “Stonewall” Jackson, and he went on to becomeone of the Confederate army’s most effective com-manders. With the help of Jackson’s reinforcements,the Union assault at Bull Run failed.

The Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Runmade it clear that the North would need a large, well-trained army to defeat the South. President Lincolnhad originally called for 75,000 men to serve for threemonths. The day after Bull Run, he signed anotherbill for the enlistment of 500,000 men for three years.

The North initially tried to encourage voluntaryenlistment by offering a bounty—a sum of moneygiven as a bonus—to individuals who promised threeyears of military service. Eventually, however, boththe Union and the Confederacy instituted the draft.

Summarizing What was the significance of the First Battle of Bull Run?

The Naval WarWhile the Union and Confederacy mobilized

their armies, President Lincoln proclaimed a block-ade of all Confederate ports in an effort to cut

Confederate trade with the world. Although theblockade became increasingly effective as the wardragged on, Union vessels were thinly spread andfound it difficult to stop the blockade runners—small, fast vessels the South used to smuggle goodspast the blockade, usually at night. By using block-ade runners, the South could ship at least some of itscotton to Europe in exchange for shoes, rifles, andother supplies.

GEOGRAPHY

Farragut Captures New Orleans As part of itseffort to close Southern ports, the Union navy devel-oped a plan to seize New Orleans and gain control ofthe lower Mississippi River. In February 1862, DavidG. Farragut took command of a combined Unionforce consisting of 42 warships and 15,000 soldiersled by General Benjamin Butler.

In early April, Farragut’s fleet began bombardingConfederate forts defending the lower MississippiRiver, 75 miles south of New Orleans. When theattack failed to destroy the forts, Farragut made a dar-ing move. In the early hours of April 24, 1862, hisships headed upriver past the forts in single file,exposing themselves to attack. The forts opened firewith more than 80 guns, while Confederate gunboatsrammed the Union fleet. Remarkably, all but four of Farragut’s ships survived the battle and continuedupriver.

Ironclads Clash at Sea, March 9, 1862

On April 25, 1862, Farragut arrived at NewOrleans. Six days later, General Butler’s troops tookcontrol of the city. The South’s largest city, and a cen-ter of the cotton trade, was now in Union hands.

Explaining How did theConfederates try to break the Union blockade?

The War in the WestIn February 1862, as Farragut prepared for his

attack on New Orleans, Union general Ulysses S.Grant began a campaign to seize control of tworivers: the Cumberland River, which flowed westpast Nashville through Tennessee, and the TennesseeRiver, which flowed through northern Alabama andwestern Tennessee. Control of these rivers would cutTennessee in two and provide the Union with a riverroute deep into Confederate territory.

Backed by armored gunboats, Grant first seizedFort Henry, the Confederacy’s main fort on theTennessee River. He then marched his troops eastand surrounded Fort Donelson on the CumberlandRiver, forcing its surrender. With the fall of FortDonelson and Fort Henry, all of Kentucky and mostof western Tennessee came under Union control.

Grant next headed up the Tennessee River toattack Corinth, Mississippi. Seizing Corinth wouldcut the Confederacy’s only rail line connectingMississippi and western Tennessee to the east.

Early on April 6, 1862, Confederate forceslaunched a surprise attack on Grant’s troops, whichwere camped about 20 miles (32 km) north ofCorinth near a small church named Shiloh. TheUnion won the Battle of Shiloh the following day,but both sides paid an enormous cost. Twenty thou-sand troops had been killed or wounded, more thanin any other battle up to that point. When newspa-pers demanded Grant be fired because of the highcasualties, Lincoln refused, saying, “I can’t sparethis man; he fights.”

Evaluating What was the significance of the Battle of Shiloh?

The War in the EastAt the same time Union and Confederate troops

were struggling for control of the Mississippi Riverand other regions in the West, another major cam-paign was being waged in the East to captureRichmond, Virginia, the Confederate capital. AfterGeneral Irwin McDowell’s failure at the First Battle

of Bull Run, Lincoln relieved him of command andchose General George B. McClellan to lead the Unionarmy in the East.

McClellan’s Peninsula Campaign After severalmonths of preparation, McClellan began transport-ing his troops by ship to the mouth of the JamesRiver, southeast of Yorktown, Virginia. From there heintended to march on Richmond, only 70 miles(113 km) away.

As McClellan advanced toward Richmond, heallowed his forces to become divided by theChickahominy River. Seizing this opportunity, theConfederate commander, General Joseph E.Johnston, attacked McClellan’s army, inflicting heavycasualties. After Johnston was wounded in the battle,General Robert E. Lee was placed in command.

In late June 1862, Lee began a series of attacks onMcClellan’s army that became known collectively asthe Seven Days’ Battle. Although Lee was unable todecisively defeat the Union army, he did forceMcClellan to retreat. Together the two sides had suf-fered over 30,000 casualties. Despite McClellan’sprotests, Lincoln ordered him to withdraw from thepeninsula and bring his troops back to Washington.

TURNING POINT

The Battle of Antietam As McClellan’s troops with-drew, Lee decided to attack the Union forces defendingWashington. The maneuvers by the two sides led toanother battle at Bull Run, near Manassas Junction, thesite of the first major battle of the war. The South againforced the North to retreat, leaving the Confederateforces only 20 miles (32 km) from Washington, D.C.Soon after, Lee’s forces invaded Maryland.

Lee decided to invade Maryland for several rea-sons. Both he and Jefferson Davis believed that onlyan invasion would convince the North to accept the


Same Battles, Different Names Many Civil Warbattles have two names. The Union usually namedbattles after the nearest body of water, while theConfederacy usually named them after the nearestsettlement. Therefore, the battle known as the Battleof Bull Run (a creek) in the North was known as theBattle of Manassas (a town) in the South. Likewise,the Battle of Antietam was remembered in the Southas the Battle of Sharpsburg.

South’s independence. They also thought that a vic-tory on Northern soil might help the South winrecognition from the British and help the PeaceDemocrats gain control of Congress in the upcom-ing midterm elections. By heading north, Lee alsocould feed his troops from Northern farms anddraw Union troops out of Virginia during harvestseason.

When he learned that McClellan had been sentafter him, Lee ordered his troops to congregate nearSharpsburg, Maryland. Meanwhile, McClellan’stroops took position along Antietam (an·TEE·tuhm)Creek, east of Lee’s forces. On September 17, 1862,McClellan ordered his troops to attack. The Battleof Antietam, the bloodiest one-day battle inAmerican history, ended with over 6,000 men killed

and around another 16,000 wounded. AlthoughMcClellan did not break Lee’s lines, he inflicted somany casualties that Lee decided to retreat toVirginia.

The Battle of Antietam was a crucial victory forthe Union. The British government had been readyto intervene in the war as a mediator if Lee’s inva-sion had succeeded. Britain also had begun makingplans to recognize the Confederacy in the event theNorth rejected mediation. Lee’s defeat at Antietamchanged everything. The British again decided to


Pea RidgeMar. 7–8, 1862

VicksburgJuly 4, 1863

Port HudsonJuly 9, 1863

New OrleansMay 1,1862

IukaSept. 19,

1862

ShilohApr. 6–7,

1862

Ft. DonelsonFeb. 16, 1862

St. AugustineMar. 8, 1862

Ft. PulaskiApr. 10–11, 1862

Port RoyalNov. 7, 1861

Cape HatterasAug. 28–29, 1861

Roanoke IslandFeb. 8, 1862

GettysburgJuly 1–3, 1863

Wilson's CreekAug. 10, 1861

Ft. SumterApr. 12–14, 1861

Seven DaysJuly 1,

1862

ChancellorsvilleMay 1–4, 1863

FredericksburgDec. 13, 1862

Bull RunJuly 21, 1861 & Aug. 29–30, 1862

PerryvilleOct. 8, 1862

Hampton RoadsMar. 9, 1862

AntietamSept. 17, 1862

Stone's RiverDec. 31, 1862–Jan. 2, 1863

Sabine PassSept. 8, 1863

Sabine Cross RoadsApr. 8, 1864

GalvestonJan. 1, 1863

ChattanoogaNov. 23–25, 1863ChickamaugaSept. 19–20, 1863

N

S

EW 300 kilometers0Albers Conic Equal-Area projection

300 miles0

95°W 90°W 85°W 80°W

30°N

25°N

ATLaNTIC

OCEaN

Gulf ofMexico

Ohio R.

Mississippi R.

TEXAS

UNORG.TERR.

LA.

ARK.

MISS.

ALA. GA.

FLA.

S.C.

N.C.

TENN.

VA.

DEL.

N.J.

PA.

OHIO

IND.ILL.

MO.

IOWA

W. VA.(1863)KY.

MD.

Houston

Austin

San Antonio

Laredo

Dallas

Memphis

Mobile

MontgomeryJackson

Washington, D.C.

Richmond

Civil War in the West and East, 1861–1863

Confederate statesUnion states

Confederate victory

Union victory

Union blockade

Union routes

Confederate routes

Date West Virginiaadmitted to Union1863

1. Interpreting Maps Name four battles that occurredalong the eastern seaboard.

2. Applying Geography Skills What purpose did theNorth have in fighting so many battles along the coasts?

wait and see how the war progressed. With thisdecision, the South lost its best chance at gaininginternational recognition and support. The South’sdefeat at Antietam had an even more importantpolitical impact in the United States. It convincedLincoln that the time had come to end slavery in theSouth.

Explaining What was the significance of the Battle of Antietam?

The Emancipation ProclamationAlthough most Democrats opposed any move to

end slavery, Republicans were divided on the issue.Many Republicans were strong abolitionists.Others, like Lincoln, did not want to endanger theloyalty of the slaveholding border states that hadchosen to remain in the Union. The war’s primarypurpose, in their opinion, was to preserve theUnion.

With Northern casualties rising to staggering lev-els, however, more Northerners began to agree thatslavery had to end, in part to punish the South and inpart to make the soldiers’ sacrifices worthwhile.George Julian, a Republican from Indiana, summedup the argument for freeing the slaves in a speechdelivered early in 1862:

“When I say that this rebellion has its source andlife in slavery, I only repeat a simple truism. . . . Themere suppression of the rebellion will be an emptymockery of our sufferings and sacrifices, if slaveryshall be spared to canker the heart of the nationanew, and repeat its diabolical misdeeds.”

—quoted in Battle Cry of Freedom

On September 22, 1862, encouraged by the Unionvictory at Antietam, Lincoln publicly announced thathe would issue the Emancipation Proclamation—adecree freeing all enslaved persons in states still inrebellion after January 1, 1863. Because theProclamation freed enslaved African Americans onlyin states at war with the Union, it did not addressslavery in the border states. Short of a constitutionalamendment, however, Lincoln could not end slaveryin the border states, nor did he want to endangertheir loyalty. ; (See page 953 for more on the EmancipationProclamation.)

The Proclamation, by its very existence, trans-formed the conflict over preserving the Union into a war of liberation. “We were no longer merely

the soldiers of a political controversy,” recalledUnion officer Regis de Trobiand. “We were now the missionaries of a great work of redemption, the armed liberators of millions.”

Examining Why did Lincoln issuethe Emancipation Proclamation?

Life During the Civil WarThe Emancipation Proclamation would bring

great change to the lives of many African Americans.However, they were not the only group affected bythe war. From the battlefront to the home front, thegreat conflict touched the lives of millions ofAmericans and turned life for many into a dailystruggle.

The Wartime Economies As the war intensified,the economies of the North and South went in dif-ferent directions. By the end of 1862, the South’seconomy had begun to suffer greatly. Althoughmany farms had converted from cotton to foodcrops, the collapse of the South’s transportation sys-tem and the presence of Union troops in severalimportant agricultural regions led to severe foodshortages in the winter of 1862. At the same time,rapid inflation drove up the prices of the food thatwas available.

The food shortages hurt Southern morale, andpeople began to question the sacrifices they werebeing asked to make—or to demand of others. In sev-eral communities, food shortages led to riots.Hearing of such hardships, many Confederate sol-diers deserted to return home to help their families.

In contrast, the North actually experienced an eco-nomic boom because of the war. With its large, well-established banking industry, the North raised moneyfor the war more easily thanthe South. Its growing indus-tries also supplied Uniontroops with clothes, muni-tions, and other necessities.

Innovations in agricul-ture helped minimize theloss of labor as men left tofight. Greater use ofmechanical reapers andmowers made farming pos-sible with fewer workers,many of whom werewomen. Women also filledlabor shortages in various


Student WebActivity Visit theAmerican RepublicSince 1877 Web site at

and click on StudentWeb Activities—Chapter 7 for an activity on the CivilWar.

HISTORY

tarvol2.glencoe.com


industries, particularly in clothing and shoemakingfactories where women were already prominentmembers of the labor force.

Explaining What were the effects offood shortages on the South?

Military LifeUnion and Confederate soldiers endured a hard life

with few comforts. Many Southern soldiers slept with-out blankets and walked barefoot, while soldiers onboth sides learned to gulp down tasteless food. For theUnion soldier, meals often consisted of hardtack (ahard biscuit made of wheat flour), potatoes, and beans,flavored at times with dried salt pork and washeddown with coffee. Confederate soldiers had little cof-fee, and their hardtack was usually made of cornmeal.

Both Union and Confederate soldiers also facedthe constant threat of disease. In the mid-1800s, themedical profession had little understanding of infec-tious germs. Doctors used the same unsterilizedinstruments on patient after patient, and infectionspread quickly in the field hospitals as a result.

In many cases, regiments lost about half their mento illness before ever going into battle. Crowdedtogether in army camps, many soldiers, especiallythose from rural areas, were exposed to illnesses theyhad never had before, such as measles and mumps.Smallpox, when it erupted, could be deadly, as coulddysentery, typhoid, and pneumonia, which were typ-ically caused by unsanitary water supplies.

Battlefield physicians also used extreme measuresin treating the wounded. Faced with appallinginjuries, doctors routinely amputated arms and legsto prevent gangrene and other infections from spread-ing from the wounded limb to the rest of the body.

As brutal as life was for soldiers on the front, itwas equally as miserable for prisoners of war—sol-diers captured by the enemy in battle. As the wardragged on, both the North and the South foundthemselves with a growing numbers of prisoners ofwar. Taking care of them proved difficult, especiallyin the South. While conditions were bad in Northernprisons, the South was not able to adequately feedtheir prisoners because of food shortages.

The most infamous prison in the South,Andersonville in southwest Georgia, was an opencamp with no shade or shelter for its huge popula-tion. Exposure, overcrowding, lack of food, and dis-ease sometimes killed more than 100 men per dayduring the sweltering summer of 1864. In all, 13,000of the 45,000 prisoners sent to Andersonville died inthe camp. After the war, Henry Wirz, the commanderat Andersonville, became the only person executedfor war crimes during the Civil War.

Summarizing What medical prob-lems did Union and Confederate soldiers face?

African Americans and Women While the war brought hardship to many

Americans, it also offered new opportunities forAfrican Americans and women. The EmancipationProclamation officially permitted African Americansto enlist in the Union army and navy. Almost imme-diately, thousands of African Americans rushed tojoin the military.

The first African American regiment officiallyorganized in the North was the 54th Massachusetts,which became one of the most famous regiments inthe war. The regiment fought valiantly at FortWagner near Charleston Harbor in July 1863, losingnearly half of its soldiers in the battle.

Although women helped in the war effort at homeby managing family farms and businesses, perhapstheir most important contribution to the Civil Warwas in serving as nurses to the wounded. One of themost prominent war nurses was Clara Barton, wholeft her job in a Washington patent office to aid sol-diers on the battlefield. With her face sometimesbluish from gunpowder, Barton fed the sick, band-aged the wounded, and even removed bullets withher own small knife. An army surgeon, impressed

African American Soldiers Battery A of the 2nd U.S. Colored Light Artillerywas one of many groups of African Americans who fought for their freedom.What was the Union’s first official African American regiment?

History




Checking for Understanding1. Define: bounty, blockade runner,

hardtack, prisoner of war.2. Identify: “Stonewall” Jackson, David G.

Farragut, Ulysses S. Grant,Emancipation Proclamation.

3. State two factors that contributed tofood shortages in the South during theCivil War.

Reviewing Themes4. Geography and History Why was

seizing control of the Mississippi Riveran important strategy of the Unionnavy?

Critical Thinking5. Analyzing In what ways do you think

the Civil War changed people’s opinionabout women’s capabilities?

6. Organizing Complete a graphic organ-izer similar to the one below to explainPresident Lincoln’s reasons for issuingthe Emancipation Proclamation and theeffects the Proclamation had on the war.

Analyzing Visuals7. Examining Art Study the painting of

the battle between the Monitor and theVirginia on page 250. What made thesevessels superior to other warships usedby the Union and the Confederacy?

Reasons forEmancipationProclamation

Effect onWar 8. Persuasive Writing Imagine that you

are asked to advise President Lincolnabout issuing the EmancipationProclamation. Write a short paper inwhich you explain the reasons for theadvice you give him.

with Barton’s kindness and courage, called her “thetrue heroine of the age, the angel of the battlefield.”

Although Southern women were encouraged tostay at home and support the troops by makingbandages and other supplies, many voluntarilyfounded small hospitals or braved the horrors of thebattlefield. Kate Cumming of Mobile, Alabama,served as a nurse following the Battle of Shiloh. Inher diary she vividly described the spectacle of warin a makeshift hospital:

“Nothing that I had ever heard or read had givenme the faintest idea of the horrors witnessedhere. . . . The men are lying all over thehouse. . . . The foul air from this mass of humanbeings at first made me giddy and sick, but I soon gotover it. . . .”

—quoted in Battle Cry of Freedom

The Civil War was a turning point for the Amer-ican nursing profession. The courage shown bywomen helped break down the belief that womenwere emotionally weaker than men. In the meantime,the war dragged on, and by 1863 the stage was set fora series of pivotal battles.

Analyzing Why do you think somany African Americans were willing to volunteer to fight in theCivil War?

Battlefield Medicine The greatest impact women had onthe battlefield was through serving as nurses. In what non-military ways did women contribute to the war effort?

History

Technology

256

Why Learn This Skill?The Internet has become a valuable research tool.

It is convenient to use, and the information con-tained on the Internet is plentiful. However, someWeb site information is not necessarily accurate orreliable. When using the Internet as a research tool,you will need to distinguish between quality infor-mation and inaccurate or incomplete information.

Learning the Skill There are a number of issues to consider when

evaluating a Web site. Most important is to checkthe accuracy of the source and content. The authorand publisher or sponsor of the site should beclearly indicated, and the user must also determinethe usefulness of the site. The information on thesite should be current, and the design and organi-zation of the site should be appealing and easy tonavigate.

To evaluate a Web site, ask yourself the followingquestions:

• Are the facts on the site documented?

• Is more than one source used for backgroundinformation within the site?

• Are the links within the site appropriate and up-to-date?

• Is the author clearly identified?

• Does the site contain links to other usefulresources?

• Is the information easy to access? Is it properlylabeled?

• Is the design appealing?

Practicing the SkillVisit the following Web site and answer the ques-

tions that follow.http://sunsite.utk.edu/civil-war/

1 Who is the author or sponsor of the Web site?

2 What links does the site contain? Are theyappropriate to the topic?

3 What sources were used for the informationcontained on the site?

4 Is the design of the site appealing? Why or whynot?

5 How is the home page organized?

Skills AssessmentComplete the Practicing Skills questions on

page 281 and the Chapter 7 Skill ReinforcementActivity to assess your mastery of this skill.

Evaluating a Web Site

Applying the SkillComparing Web Sites Locate two other Web sitesabout the Civil War. Evaluate them for accuracy andusefulness, and then compare them to the site featuredabove. Be certain to go through the various links thatthe site includes so that you can do a thorough evalua-tion of the site. Share your findings with the class.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook,CD-ROM Level 2, provides instruction andpractice in key social studies skills.

At Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, in early July of 1863, Samuel Wilkeson sat to write hisaccount of the battle that had raged for three days near the town. As he composed his dis-patch, the body of Lieutenant Bayard Wilkeson, his son, lay dead beside him.

Wilkeson recorded the events that destroyed the peace of the Gettysburg countryside. Herecalled “the singing of a bird, which had a nest in a peach tree within the tiny yard of thewhitewashed cottage” that served as the Union army headquarters:

“In the midst of its warbling a shell screamed over the house, instantly followed byanother and another and in a moment the air was full of the most complete artillery prel-ude to an infantry battle that was ever exhibited. Every size and form of shell known toBritish and to American gunnery shrieked, moaned, whirled, whistled, and wrathfully flut-tered over our ground.”

—quoted in Eyewitness to History

July 1–3, 1863Battle of Gettysburg

✦ August 1864 ✦ April 1865

Vicksburg FallsGettysburg was only one of a series of horrific encounters in 1863. The first battle took

place farther west, where a vital part of the Union strategy involved gaining control ofthe Mississippi River. In April 1862, Commander David Farragut had captured NewOrleans and secured Union control of the Mississippi River delta. Later that year,Ulysses S. Grant seized control of the river as far south as Memphis after his victory atShiloh. If the Union could capture Vicksburg, Mississippi, the last major Confederatestronghold on the river, the North could cut the South in two.

The Turning Point

July 4, 1863Vicksburg falls

November 19, 1863Lincoln deliversGettysburg Address

April 9, 1865Lee surrenders atAppomattox Courthouse


April 14, 1865Lincoln assassinated

Farmhouse used by GeneralGeorge Meade for his

headquarters at Gettysburg

✦ July 1863

Main IdeaWith the help of key victories at Vicksburgand Gettysburg, the North defeated theSouth after four long years of fighting.

Key Terms and Names foraging, siege, Pickett’s Charge,Gettysburg Address, William TecumsehSherman, torpedo, mandate, ThirteenthAmendment, Appomattox Courthouse

Reading StrategyCategorizing As you read about battlesthat led to a turning point in the war,complete a chart by listing the results ofthe battles shown.

Reading Objectives• Evaluate the importance of events at

Vicksburg and Gettysburg.• Discuss Lee’s surrender and the events

of the war’s aftermath.

Section ThemeGeography and History The Union vic-tories at Vicksburg and Gettysburg turnedthe tide of the war firmly in favor of theNorth.

Battle Results

Vicksburg

Chancellorsville

Gettysburg

Chickamauga Creek

Missionary Ridge

Grierson’s Raid The city of Vicksburg was locatedon the east bank of the Mississippi River. At firstGrant tried to approach the city from the north, butthe land was too swampy, and the rivers in the areawere covered with vegetation and blocked by trees.To get at Vicksburg, Grant decided to move histroops across the Mississippi to the west bank andthen march south. Once past the city, Grant intendedto cross back to the east bank of the river and attackthe city from the south.

To distract the Confederates while he carried outthis difficult maneuver, Grant ordered BenjaminGrierson to take 1,700 troops on a cavalry raid throughMississippi. Grierson’s forces traveled 600 miles (965 km) in about two weeks, tearing up railroads,burning depots, and fighting skirmishes. His raid dis-tracted the Confederate forces defending Vicksburgand enabled Grant to move his troops south of the city.

The Siege of Vicksburg After returning to the eastbank of the Mississippi, Grant embarked on a daringmarch east, ordering his troops to live off the country.Foraging—or searching and raiding for food—as theymarched, Grant’s troops headed east into Mississippiand captured the town of Jackson before turning backwest toward Vicksburg. Grant’s troops marched anastonishing 180 miles (290 km) in 17 days, fought 5 bat-tles, and inflicted 7,200 casualties on the Confederates.The march ended by driving the Confederate forcesback into their defenses at Vicksburg.

On May 19, 1863, Grant launched an all-outassault on Vicksburg, but the city’s defendersrepulsed the attack and inflicted high casualties. On

May 22, Grant tried again, but Vicksburg’s defenseswere still too strong. He decided that the only way totake the city was to put it under siege—cutting off itsfood and supplies and bombarding the city until itsdefenders gave up. On July 4, 1863, with his troopsliterally on the verge of starvation, the Confederatecommander at Vicksburg surrendered. The Unionvictory had cut the Confederacy in two.

Explaining Why did PresidentLincoln want the Union army to capture Vicksburg?

GettysburgShortly after McClellan’s victory at Antietam in

September 1862, Lincoln had become frustrated againwith the general. McClellan could have destroyedLee’s army at Antietam, but he let the Confederatesslip away. On November 7, 1862, Lincoln firedMcClellan.

The president gave command of the army to GeneralAmbrose Burnside and then to General Joseph Hooker,both of whom had little success against Lee’s troops,who were entrenched in the hills south of Fredericks-burg, Virginia. At the Battle of Fredericksburg and againat the Battle of Chancellorsville, Lee’s outnumberedarmy defeated the Union troops.

Despite the fact that both sides suffered heavycasualties during the fighting, Lee’s victory embold-ened the Confederate general. Once again, hedecided to invade the North.

TURNING POINT

The Battle of Gettysburg In June 1863, Leemarched into Pennsylvania, where his troops seizedlivestock, food, and clothing. Hooker’s failure to stopLee convinced Lincoln that the general lacked thedecisiveness necessary to win the war. Lincolnremoved Hooker from command and appointedGeneral George Meade as his replacement. Meadeimmediately headed north to intercept Lee.

At the end of June, as Lee’s army foraged in thePennsylvania countryside, some of his troops headedinto the town of Gettysburg, hoping to seize a sup-ply of shoes. When they arrived near the town, theydiscovered two brigades of Union cavalry. On July 1,1863, the Confederates pushed the Union troops outof the town and into the hills to the south. At thesame time, the main forces of both armies hurried tothe scene of the fighting.

On July 2, Lee attacked, but the Union troopsheld their ground. The following day, Lee orderednearly 15,000 men under the command of General


Vicksburg Besieged Union troops used this house as a headquarters duringthe siege of Vicksburg. Nearby are Union trenches and the opening to a tunnelbeing dug under Confederate lines. For how long was the city of Vicksburgunder siege by Grant’s Union forces?

History

George E. Pickett and General A.P. Hill to make amassive assault. The attack became known asPickett’s Charge. As the mile-wide line ofConfederate troops marched across open farmlandtoward Union forces at Cemetery Ridge, Union can-nons and guns opened fire, inflicting 7,000 casual-ties in less than half an hour of fighting.

Aftermath of the Battle Pickett’s Charge failed tobreak the Union lines. Fewer than 5,000 men made itup the ridge, and Union troops quickly overwhelmedthose who did. “It is all my fault,” said Lee. “It is I whohave lost this fight.” Despite the defeat, Lee quicklyrallied his troops, withdrew from Gettysburg on arainy July 4, and retreated back to Virginia. AtGettysburg, the Union suffered 23,000 casualties, butthe South’s toll was an estimated 28,000 casualties,more than one-third of Lee’s entire force.

The disaster at Gettysburg proved to be the turn-ing point of the war in the East. The Union’s victorystrengthened the Republicans politically and ensuredonce again that the British would not recognize theConfederacy. For the remainder of the war, Lee’sforces remained on the defensive, slowly givingground to the advancing Union army.

The Gettysburg Address In November 1863, Lincolncame to Gettysburg to dedicate a part of the battlefieldas a cemetery. His speech, the Gettysburg Address,became one of the best-known orations in Americanhistory. In it, Lincoln reminded his listeners that thenation was “conceived in liberty, and dedicated to theproposition that all men are created equal”:

“It is . . . for us to be here dedicated to the greattask remaining before us—that from these honoreddead we take increased devotion to that cause forwhich they gave the last full measure of devotion;that we here highly resolve that these dead shall nothave died in vain; that this, nation, under God, shallhave a new birth of freedom; and that the govern-ment of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”

—from the Gettysburg Address

; (See page 954 for the complete text of the Gettysburg Address.)

Summarizing What was the resultof Pickett’s Charge?

The telegraph operatorpressed a switch, calledthe key, breaking anelectric current .

1 The electric current activateda sounder, an electromagnetconsisting of coiled wirewrapped around an iron core.The changing electric currentcreated a clicking sound.

2 Skilled operators wereable to send up to 60messages each hour,keying a message withone hand while translat-ing incoming messageswith the other hand.

3

Telegraph wires allowedthe clicking codes to betransmitted geographically.

4

key

sounder

TheTelegraphInvented by Samuel Morsein 1837, the telegraph wasindispensable during theCivil War. It was used tosend battle orders and toverify the locations oftroops. With no telegraph inthe White House, PresidentLincoln often visited the WarDepartment’s telegraphroom to receive currentinformation. Telegraphoperators sent messages bypressing a key in a patternof short and long clicks, fol-lowing Morse’s alphabeticcode. In what other areasof life was the telegraphuseful?


Civil War620,000World

War II407,000

WorldWar I

107,000

Vietnam War58,000

Korean War36,500

Revolutionary War25,000

War with Mexico13,000Other major

wars5,000

(approximate figures)American War Deaths

Source: United States Civil War Center; For the Common Defense

Grant Secures TennesseeAfter the Union’s major victories at Vicksburg and

Gettysburg, fierce fighting erupted in Tennessee nearChattanooga. Chattanooga was a vital railroad junc-tion. Both the North and the South knew that if theUnion forces captured Chattanooga, they would con-trol a major railroad running south to Atlanta. Theway would be open for a Union advance into Georgia.

Chattanooga had been in the hands ofConfederate forces led by General Braxton Bragg. Inearly September 1863, however, Union generalWilliam Rosecrans pushed Bragg’s troops out of thetown. Bragg did not retreat far. When Rosecransadvanced into Georgia, Bragg launched an assault

against him at Chickamauga Creek on September 19,1863. Rosecrans quickly ordered his troops to fallback to Chattanooga, where they found themselvessurrounded by Bragg’s forces.

In an effort to save the Union forces inChattanooga, Lincoln decided to send some ofMeade’s forces to help Rosecrans. General Grant alsohurried to Chattanooga and quickly took charge ofthe Union forces gathered there.

In late November, Grant ordered an attack onConfederate positions on Lookout Mountain.Charging uphill through swirling fog, the Uniontroops quickly forced the Southern troops to fall back.Confederates retreating from Lookout Mountain hur-ried to join the Southern forces at Missionary Ridge

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Civil War Casualties, 1861–1865

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Total Deaths Battle-RelatedDeaths

Non-BattleDeaths

Source: For the Common Defense.

Albers Conic Equal-Area projection200 kilometers0

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Cold HarborJune 3, 1864

Spotsylvania C.HMay 8–19, 1864

Appomattox C.H.–Lee Surrenders, Apr. 9, 1865

Five ForksApr. 1, 1865

The WildernessMay 5–6, 1864

PetersburgJune 1864–Apr. 1865

SavannahDec. 21, 1864

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Richmond

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Wilmington

Charleston

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Lynchburg

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Union forcesConfederate forcesUnion victoryConfederate victory

Final Campaigns of the Civil War, 1864–1865

1. Interpreting Maps In what state did Lee surrender?2. Applying Geography Skills How long did the siege of

Petersburg last, and what significance did it have for thewar?

257-263 ARC7S3-860712 12/10/03 3:13 PM Page 260

east of Chattanooga. Although outnumbered, theysecured a rugged position on high ground.

Grant did not intend to storm Missionary Ridge.He believed an all-out assault would be suicidal.Instead he ordered General William TecumsehSherman to attack Confederate positions on thenorth end of the ridge. When Sherman failed tobreak through, Grant ordered 23,000 men underGeneral George Thomas to launch a limited attackagainst the Confederates in front of MissionaryRidge as a diversion.

To Grant’s astonishment, Thomas’s troops overranthe Confederate trenches and charged up the steepslope of Missionary Ridge. The rapid charge scat-tered the surprised Confederate soldiers whoretreated in panic, leaving Missionary Ridge—andChattanooga—to the Union army.

By the spring of 1864, Grant had accomplishedtwo crucial objectives for the Union. His capture ofVicksburg had given the Union control of theMississippi River, while his victory at Chattanoogahad secured eastern Tennessee and cleared the wayfor an invasion of Georgia.

Lincoln rewarded Grant by appointing him gen-eral in chief of the Union forces and promoting himto lieutenant general, a rank no one had held sinceGeorge Washington. The president had finally founda general he trusted to win the war.

Examining Why was capturingChattanooga important for the Union?

Grant Versus LeeBy the spring of 1864, Union leaders knew that the

only way to end the long and bloody war was todefeat Lee’s army. Accordingly, General Grant puthis most trusted subordinate, William Sherman, incharge of Union operations in the West. Grant thenheaded to Washington, D.C., to take command of theUnion troops facing Lee.

From Wilderness to Cold Harbor “Whatever hap-pens, there will be no turning back,” Grant promisedLincoln. He was determined to march southward,attacking Lee’s forces until the South surrendered.

The first battle of Grant’s campaign erupted inthe Wilderness, a densely forested area nearFredericksburg, Virginia. Despite suffering heavycasualties in the two-day battle, Grant did notpause. He headed southeast toward SpotsylvaniaCourthouse. First in terrible heat and then in pouring rain, the two armies battled near

Spotsylvania for over a week, often in bloody hand-to-hand combat that left many traumatized.

Unable to break Lee’s lines at Spotsylvania, Grantheaded toward Cold Harbor, a strategic crossroadsnortheast of Richmond. Convinced that his relentlessattacks had weakened and demoralized Lee’s troops,Grant decided to launch an all-out assault at ColdHarbor. The attack failed miserably, costing the Union7,000 casualties, compared to only 1,500 for the South.

The Siege of Petersburg Stopped by Lee at ColdHarbor, Grant tried another plan. He orderedGeneral Philip Sheridan to stage a cavalry raid northand west of Richmond. While Sheridan’s troops dis-tracted Lee, Grant headed south past Richmond tocross the James River. His goal was to capture thenearby town of Petersburg and thus cut off the railline supplying Richmond and Lee’s forces.

When Union troops reached the outskirts ofPetersburg, they paused. The city was defended by20-foot thick barricades, 15-foot deep ditches, andcarefully positioned cannons. The strength of thecity’s defenses intimidated the Union troops, whowere already exhausted and demoralized. Realizinga full-scale frontal assault would be suicidal, Grantordered his troops to lay siege to the city.

Summarizing Why did GeneralGrant want to capture Petersburg?

Union Victories in the SouthSouth of Virginia, General William Sherman

marched his army from Chattanooga toward Atlanta,Georgia. Meanwhile, the Union navy sealed up thelast major Confederate port on the Gulf of Mexicoeast of the Mississippi—Mobile, Alabama.

Farragut Attacks Mobile On August 5, 1864, DavidFarragut took 18 ships past the three Confederate fortsdefending Mobile Bay. As the fleet headed into the bay,a mine, which was called a torpedo in the 1860s, blewup a Union ship. The explosion brought the fleet to ahalt directly in front of a fort’s guns. “Damn the torpe-does! Full speed ahead!” cried Farragut, whose flag-ship led the way. After getting past the Confederateforts, Farragut’s ships destroyed a Confederate fleetdefending Mobile Bay. Although Farragut did not cap-ture Mobile, he did seal off the bay.

Sherman Takes Georgia In late August 1864,General Sherman’s army tried to encircle Atlanta. Toavoid being trapped in the city, Confederate General


John B. Hood evacuated the city. Taking the city easily,Sherman’s troops set fires to destroy railroads, ware-houses, mills, and factories. The fires spread quickly,destroying more than one-third of the city.

On November 15, 1864, Sherman led his troopseast across Georgia in what became known as theMarch to the Sea. The purpose of the march was tomake Southern civilians understand the horrors ofwar and to pressure them into giving up the struggle.Sherman’s troops cut a path of destruction throughGeorgia that was at times 60 miles (97 km) wide.They ransacked houses, burned crops, and killedlivestock. By December 21, 1864, they had reachedthe coast and seized Georgia’s first settlement, thecity of Savannah.

After reaching the Atlantic coast, Sherman turnednorth and headed into South Carolina, the state thatmany people believed had started the Civil War.“The whole army,” Sherman wrote, “is burning withan insatiable desire to wreak vengeance upon SouthCarolina.” As one of Sherman’s soldiers declaredabout South Carolina, “Here is where treason beganand . . . here is where it shall end.”

Sherman’s troops burned and pillaged nearlyeverything in front of them. At least 12 towns wereset on fire, including Columbia, the state capital,

which Sherman seized in February 1865. The marchgreatly demoralized Southerners. As one SouthCarolinian wrote, “All is gloom, despondency andinactivity. Our army is demoralized and the peoplepanic stricken . . . to fight longer seems madness.”

Examining Why did GeneralSherman march his army to the sea?

The South SurrendersAs Sherman and Grant began their campaigns in

the spring of 1864, Lincoln worried greatly about hischances for re-election. Sensing the public’s growinganger over the costly war, Lincoln even confided toan army officer, “I am going to be beaten.” He did notknow that the war was rapidly approaching its con-clusion—and the South was headed toward collapse.

The Election of 1864 The capture of Atlanta camejust in time to revitalize Northern support for the warand for Lincoln himself. On Election Day, voterselected the president to another term. Lincoln inter-preted his re-election as an approval of his war policies and as a mandate, or clear sign from the vot-ers, to end slavery permanently by amending the

Reading Check

i n H i s t o r y

Robert E. Lee 1807–1870

The son of a distinguished—thoughnot wealthy—Virginia family, Robert E.Lee was raised in the socially exclusiveworld of the aristocratic South. From thebeginning, he seemed marked by fate forbrilliant success. At West Point heexcelled in both his studies and his sociallife, impressing teachers and fellowcadets with his talent and good nature. As an army officer in thewar with Mexico, he performed with brilliance and courage.

Offered command of the Union troops at the beginning of theCivil War, Lee refused, unable to oppose his fellow Virginians. Helater commanded the army of Northern Virginia.

A hero to Southerners during the war, Lee felt a responsibility toset an example of Southern honor in defeat. His swearing ofrenewed allegiance to the United States after the war inspiredthousands of former Confederate soldiers to follow his example.As president of Washington College in Virginia (later renamedWashington and Lee), Lee encouraged his students to put the warbehind them and to behave as responsible citizens.

Lee died at age 63. In his last moments, he seemed to giveorders to his troops, and then at last called out, “Strike the tent!”

Ulysses S. Grant 1822–1885

Before his victories in Kentucky andTennessee, Ulysses S. Grant had been amediocre West Point cadet, a failed busi-nessperson, and an undistinguishedarmy officer. More than any other Unioncommander, however, Grant changedthe strategy—and the outcome—of theCivil War. Grant’s restless urge for offen-sive fighting and his insistence on “unconditional surrender” atFort Donelson convinced Lincoln to place the general in commandof all the Union troops in 1864. Lincoln’s confidence was not mis-placed. Despite mounting casualties and accusations that he was a“butcher,” Grant pushed relentlessly until he finally accepted Lee’ssurrender at Appomattox, Virginia.

The Union’s enthusiasm for its victorious general made Grant atwo-term president after the war, although scandals in his admin-istration marred his reputation. The Civil War had been the highpoint of Grant’s life, the challenge that brought out his best quali-ties. More than any monument or memorial—including Grant’sTomb, in New York City—Lincoln’s defense of his embattled gen-eral during the war sums up Grant’s character and achievement: “I can’t spare this man; he fights.”


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Checking for Understanding1. Define: foraging, siege, torpedo,

mandate.2. Identify: Pickett’s Charge, Gettysburg

Address, William Tecumseh Sherman,Thirteenth Amendment, AppomattoxCourthouse.

3. Describe how General Grant conductedthe Confederate surrender.

Reviewing Themes4. Geography and History Why was

capturing Vicksburg important for theUnion?

Critical Thinking5. Analyzing How might the outcome of

the war have been different if theConfederates had won at Gettysburg?Why?

6. Organizing Complete a graphic organ-izer by listing the purpose for the Unionmarch on Atlanta and the effect of thecity’s capture on both sides.

Analyzing Visuals7. Examining Graphs Examine the

graphs of war deaths on page 260.What would account for the thousandsof non-battle deaths listed in one of thegraphs?

Purpose

Union Marchon Atlanta

Effects 8. Descriptive Writing Take on the roleof a Confederate or Union soldier at theBattle of Gettysburg. Write a journalentry describing the battle and yourfeelings about its result.

Constitution. To get the amendment throughCongress, Republicans appealed to Democrats whowere against slavery to help them. On January 31,1865, the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution,banning slavery in the United States, was narrowlypassed by the House of Representatives and was sentto the states for ratification.

Surrender Meanwhile, back in the trenches nearPetersburg, Lee knew that time was running out. OnApril 1, 1865, Union troops led by Philip Sheridan cutthe last rail line into Petersburg at the Battle of FiveForks. The following night, Lee’s troops withdrewfrom their positions near the city and raced west.

Lee’s desperate attempt to escape Grant’s forcesfailed when Sheridan’s cavalry got ahead of Lee’stroops and blocked the road at AppomattoxCourthouse. When his troops failed to breakthrough, Lee sadly observed, “There is nothing leftfor me to do but go and see General Grant, and Iwould rather die a thousand deaths.” With hisragged and battered troops surrounded and outnum-bered, Lee surrendered to Grant on April 9, 1865.

Grant’s generous terms of surrender guaranteedthat the United States would not prosecuteConfederate soldiers for treason. When Grantagreed to let Confederates take their horses home“to put in a crop to carry themselves and their fami-lies through the next winter,” Lee thanked him,adding that the kindness would “do much towardconciliating our people.” As Lee left he shook handswith Ely Parker, a Senecan who served as Grant’ssecretary. “I am glad to see a real American here,”Lee told the Native American. Parker replied, “Weare all Americans.”

Lincoln’s Assassination With the war over,Lincoln delivered a speech describing his plan torestore the Southern states to the Union. In thespeech, he mentioned including African Americansin Southern state governments. One listener, actorJohn Wilkes Booth, sneered to a friend, “That is thelast speech he will ever make.”

Although his advisers had repeatedly warned himnot to appear unescorted in public, Lincoln went toFord’s Theater with his wife to see a play on theevening of April 14, 1865. Just after 10 P.M., Boothslipped quietly behind the president and shot him inthe back of the head. Lincoln died the next morning.

The president’s death shocked the nation. Onceviewed as an unsophisticated man unsuited for thepresidency, Lincoln had become the Union’s greatestchampion. Tens of thousands of men, women, and chil-dren lined railroad tracks across the nation as Lincoln’sbody was transported back to Springfield, Illinois.

Aftermath of the Civil War The North’s victory inthe Civil War saved the Union and strengthened thepower of the federal government over the states. Ittransformed American society by ending slavery, butit also left the South socially and economically devas-tated, and many questions unresolved.

No one knew how to bring the Southern statesback into the Union or what the status of AfricanAmericans would be in Southern society. Americansfrom the North and the South tried to answer thesequestions in the years following the Civil War—anera known as Reconstruction.

Explaining Why did PresidentLincoln doubt he could win the 1864 election?

CemeteryCemeteryHill Hill

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Hanove

r Road

Hanove

r Road

Baltimore Pike

Baltimore Pike

Emmitsburg Road

Emmitsburg Road

11th ACHospital

ArtilleryReserves

AndersonAnderson

PettigrewPettigrew

TTrimblerimble

EarlyEarly

RodesRodes

ArmisteadArmisteadWilcoxWilcox

McLawsMcLaws

Hood

Hood

JohnsonJohnson

PickettPickett

GarnettGarnett

KemperKemper

LangLang3rd Corps3rd Corps

HILLHILL15,20015,200

2nd Corps2nd CorpsEWELLEWELL15,00015,000

1st Corps1st CorpsLONGSTREETLONGSTREET

15,50015,500

P i c k e t tP i c k e t t ’’ s C h a r g e

s C h a r g e12,5003 pm

11th Corps11th CorpsHOWHOWARDARD

5,8005,800 2nd Corps2nd CorpsGIBBONGIBBON

6,8006,800

12th Corps12th CorpsSLOCUMSLOCUM

8,7008,700

1st Corps1st CorpsNEWTONNEWTON

6,0006,000

3rd Corps3rd CorpsBIRNEYBIRNEY

6,4006,4006th Corps

SEDGWICK13,600

5th CorpsSYKES

9,500

TTown ofown ofGETTYSBURGGETTYSBURG

Army of Northern VArmy of Northern VirginiairginiaGeneral Robert E. LeeGeneral Robert E. Lee

Army of the PotomacArmy of the PotomacGeneral George G. MeadeGeneral George G. Meade

N

S

W

E

Geography&History

A nurse poses with wounded soldiers outside oneof the 400 tents set up as a temporary hospital atGettysburg. During the battle, the Union army suf-fered 23,000 casualties, the Confederates 28,000.

Harrisburg

Washington, D.C.

Carlisle

ChambersburgYork

Frederick

Winchester

FredericksburgChancellorsville

Baltimore

FrontRoyal

Gettysburg

MARYLAND

PENNSYLVANIA

VIRGINIA

INVADING THE NORTHAfter their victory atChancellorsville in May 1863, theConfederates invaded the North(red arrow). Using the Blue RidgeMountains to screen their move-ments, the Confederates advanceddown the Shenandoah Valley,crossed the Potomac River, andpushed into Pennsylvania. The Federal army (blue arrow)placed itself between the Rebels and Washington. On July 1, the twoarmies met at the crossroads townof Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.

264 CHAPTER 7 The Civil War

CemeteryHill

Culp's Hill

Benner’s Hill Wolf Hill

Power'sHill

WheatWheatFieldField

PeachOrchard

LittleLittleRound TRound Top op

Devil'sDevil'sDen Den

BigBigRoundRound

TTopop

S e m i n a r yR i d g e

C e m e t e r y R i d g e

Rock Creek

Plum Run

YorkPike

Taneytown Road

Hanove

r Road

Baltimore Pike

Emmitsburg Road

11th AC11th ACHospitalHospital

ArtilleryArtilleryReservesReserves

Anderson

Pettigrew

Trimble

Early

Rodes

ArmisteadWilcox

McLaws

HoodHood

HoodHood

Johnson

Pickett

Garnett

Kemper

Lang3rd Corps

HILL15,200

2nd CorpsEWELL15,000

1st CorpsLONGSTREET

15,500

P i c k e t t ’ s C h a r g e12,5003 pm

11th CorpsHOWARD

5,800 2nd CorpsGIBBON

6,800

12th CorpsSLOCUM

8,700

1st CorpsNEWTON

6,000

3rd CorpsBIRNEY

6,4006th Corps6th Corps

SEDGWICKSEDGWICK13,60013,600

5th Corps5th CorpsSYKESSYKES

9,5009,500

Town ofGETTYSBURG

Army of Northern VirginiaGeneral Robert E. Lee

Army of the PotomacGeneral George G. Meade

LEARNING FROM GEOGRAPHY

The Confederate invasion of Union territory inthe summer of 1863 had been a bold stroke.By moving north, the Confederate commanderof the Army of Northern Virginia, GeneralRobert E. Lee, had relieved pressure on battle-

ravaged Virginia. He had threatened the Federal capitalof Washington, D.C., and gained access to the rich farmsand other resources of Pennsylvania. Indeed, it was theprospect of finding shoes and other army supplies thatlured the Confederates to Gettysburg.

By the morning of July 3, however, Lee was lament-ing the lost opportunities.When his troops arrived inGettysburg on July 1, they had driven the Federals outof the town. Quickly grasping the advantages of defend-ing the high ground, Major General George Meade hadordered his Federal Army of the Potomac to take uppositions in the hills south of town.The Federal linestretched from Culp’s Hill and Cemetery Hill southalong Cemetery Ridge to another hill called LittleRound Top. The Confederates had taken up a positionalong a roughly parallel ridge to the west known asSeminary Ridge. Between the two positions stretchedpastureland and fields of wheat. On July 2, Lee’s troopshad attacked Federal positions on Culp’s Hill, CemeteryHill and Little Round Top, but were pushed back. Now,on the morning of July 3, Lee was determined to puncha hole in the Federal line. Among the officers preparingto attack was Major General George Pickett, who would give his name to the day’s infantry charge.

At about 3:00 p.m., more than 12,000 Confederatesset out from Seminary Ridge.Three-quarters of a mileaway, the Federals waited atop Cemetery Ridge. Federalartillery ripped holes in the Confederate line as itadvanced.When the Rebels were 200 yards from thecrest of Cemetery Ridge, the Federals unleashed volleyafter volley. Still the Confederates pressed on. Hundredsmade it all the way up the slope of the ridge, but asthey did, Federal reinforcements rushed in. Firing atpoint-blank range, stabbing with bayonets, bludgeoning with the butt ends of rifles, the Federals drove theConfederates back down the slope. Pickett’s Charge hadbeen repulsed. Lee retreated to Virginia and the tide ofwar turned in favor of the North.

Gettysburg:The Final Day

Scale of map varies inthis perspective

(distance from Gettysburgto Big Round Top 3 miles)

Corp

Commander

3rd Corps

HILL15,200

Gettysburg Forces

Number oftroops (as of noon, July 3rd)

Confederatetroops

Uniontroops

CANNON BOMBARDMENTPickett’s Charge was preceded by a massiveartillery bombardment. However, much of theConfederate artillery overshot the Federal posi-tions on Cemetery Ridge, landing well to the rearof the frontline troops.

CHAPTER 7 The Civil War 265

“It’s all my fault. It is I who have lost this fight,”Lee told the survivors as they struggled backafter Pickett’s Charge.

1. How did the Confederate army use the mountains ofVirginia in its invasion of the North?

2. Why was the Federal army in such a strong position atGettysburg?

Houston Holloway was ready for freedom. By 1865 the 20-year-old enslaved man hadtoiled under three different slaveholders. President Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation,delivered in 1863, had freed him—but only in theory. The proclamation freed enslavedpersons in the Confederacy, but because the Union could not enforce its laws inConfederate territory, many African American men and women in the South remainedenslaved. Holloway knew that his only hope of freedom was a Northern victory in the Civil War.

The time of that victory finally arrived. On the spring day in 1865 when Union troopsoverran his community in Georgia on their way to defeating the Confederacy, Hollowayrejoiced upon reaching true freedom:

“I felt like a bird out of a cage. Amen. Amen. Amen. I could hardly ask to feel betterthan I did that day. . . . The week passed off in a blaze of glory.”

—quoted in A Short History of Reconstruction

1864Lincoln vetoesWade-Davis Bill


✦ 1867

Reconstruction Battle BeginsAt the end of the Civil War, the South was a defeated region with a devastated econ-

omy. While some Southerners were bitter over the Union military victory, for many themore important struggle after the conflict was rebuilding their land and their lives.Meanwhile, the president and Congress grappled with the difficult task ofReconstruction, or rebuilding the nation after the war. Among other things, they had todecide under what terms and conditions the former Confederate states would be per-mitted to rejoin the Union.

Reconstruction Begins

1865Freedmen’sBureau founded

1866Congress passesFourteenth Amendment

1867Congress passes MilitaryReconstruction Act

Artist depiction of anemancipated African American

✦ 1864 ✦ 1865 ✦ 1866

Main Idea In the months after the Civil War, thenation began the effort to rebuild andreunite.

Key Terms and NamesReconstruction, amnesty, pocket veto,freedmen, Freedmen’s Bureau, blackcodes, Fourteenth Amendment, MilitaryReconstruction Act, impeach, FifteenthAmendment

Reading StrategyOrganizing As you read aboutReconstruction, complete a graphicorganizer similar to the one below tocompare the plans of President Lincolnand the Radical Republicans for readmit-ting Southern states to the Union.

Reading Objectives• Discuss life in the South immediately

after the war.• Describe the major features of congres-

sional Reconstruction and its politicalimpact.

Section ThemeGroups and Institutions Northernersdisagreed on which policies would bestrebuild the South and safeguard therights of African Americans.Lincoln’s Plan Radical Republicans’ Plan

Readmission Plans

Lincoln’s Plan In December 1863, President Lincolnset forth his plan for reuniting the country in theProclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction.Lincoln wanted a moderate policy that would recon-cile the South with the Union instead of punishing itfor treason. He offered a general amnesty, or pardon,to all Southerners who took an oath of loyalty to theUnited States and accepted the Union’s proclama-tions concerning slavery. When 10 percent of a state’svoters in the 1860 presidential election had taken thisoath, they could organize a new state government.Certain people were excluded from taking the oath,however, and would not be pardoned. Theseincluded all Confederate government officials andofficers in the Confederate army, as well as all judges,members of Congress, and military officers who hadleft their posts to help the Confederacy.

The Radical Republicans Resistance to Lincoln’splan surfaced at once among a group of Republicansin Congress known as Radical Republicans. Led byRepresentative Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvaniaand Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts, theradicals did not want to reconcile with the South.They wanted, in Stevens’s words, to “revolutionizeSouthern institutions, habits, and manners.”

The Radical Republicans had three main goals. First,they wanted to prevent the leaders of the Confederacyfrom returning to power after the war. Second, theywanted the Republican Party to become a powerfulinstitution in the South. Finally, and perhaps mostimportantly, they wanted the federal government tohelp African Americans achieve political equality byguaranteeing their right to vote in the South.

Congressional Republicans knew that the aboli-tion of slavery would give the South more seats in theHouse of Representatives. Before the Civil War,enslaved people had only counted in Congress asthree-fifths of a free person. Now that AfricanAmericans were free, the South was entitled to moreseats in Congress. This would endanger Republicancontrol of Congress, unless Republicans could find away to protect African American voting rights in theSouth.

Although the radicals knew that giving AfricanAmericans in the South the right to vote would helpthe Republican Party win elections, most were notacting cynically. Many of them had been abolitionistsbefore the Civil War and had pushed Lincoln intomaking emancipation a goal of the war. Theybelieved in equality for all Americans, regardless oftheir race. Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusettssummarized their position by saying:

“[Congress] must see to it that the man made freeby the Constitution is a freeman indeed; that he cango where he pleases, work when and for whom hepleases . . . go into schools and educate himself andhis children; that the rights and guarantees of thecommon law are his, and that he walks the earthproud and erect in the conscious dignity of a freeman.”

The Wade-Davis Bill Caught between Lincoln andthe Radical Republicans were many moderateRepublicans. The moderates thought Lincoln wasbeing too lenient, but they also thought the radicalswere going too far in their support for AfricanAmerican equality and voting rights.

By the summer of 1864, the moderates and radi-cals had come up with a plan for Reconstructionthat they could both support as an alternative toLincoln’s plan. The compromise between the mod-erates and the radicals was the Wade-Davis Bill of1864. This bill required the majority of the adultwhite men in a former Confederate state to take anoath of allegiance to the Union. The state couldthen hold a constitutional convention to create anew state government. Furthermore, the peoplechosen to attend the constitutional convention hadto take an “ironclad” oath asserting that they hadnever fought against the Union or supported theConfederacy in any way. Each state’s conventionwould then have to abolish slavery, reject all debtsthe state had acquired as part of the Confederacy,

History

War-Shattered City The CivilWar wreaked terrible devastationon Richmond, Virginia. Why doyou think the women picturedhere are dressed in black?

and deprive all former Confederate governmentofficials and military officers of the right to vote orhold office.

Although Congress passed the Wade-Davis Bill,Lincoln blocked it with a pocket veto, that is, he letthe session of Congress expire without signing the legislation. Although Lincoln sympathized with some of the radical goals, he felt that imposinga harsh peace on the South would be counter-productive.

.Summarizing Why did Lincolnfavor a generous Reconstruction policy toward the South?

The Freedmen’s BureauLincoln realized that harsh Reconstruction terms

would only alienate many whites in the South. Also,the South was already in chaos. The devastation ofthe war and the collapse of the economy left hun-dreds of thousands of people unemployed, home-less, and hungry. At the same time, the victoriousUnion armies had to try to accommodate the largenumbers of African Americans who flocked toUnion lines as the war progressed. As Shermanmarched through Georgia and South Carolina,thousands of freed African Americans—now knownas freedmen—began following his troops seekingfood and shelter.

As the different programs for assisting Southernrefugees—both white and African American—gotunderway, support began to build in Congress forthe creation of a federal agency to help with therefugee crisis. In March 1865, Congress establishedthe Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and AbandonedLands, better known as the Freedmen’s Bureau.The Bureau was given the task of feeding and cloth-ing war refugees in the South using surplus armysupplies. Beginning in September 1865, the Bureauissued nearly 30,000 rations a day for the next year.

The Bureau also helped formerly enslaved peoplefind work on plantations. It negotiated labor contractswith planters, specifying pay and hours of work.Although many people in the North applauded theBureau’s efforts, they argued those who were for-merly enslaved should be given land—commonlyreferred to as “forty acres and a mule”—to supportthemselves now that they were free. To others, how-ever, taking land from plantation owners and givingit to freedmen seemed to violate the nation’s cher-ished commitment to individual property rights. As aresult, Congress refused to confirm the right ofAfrican Americans to own the lands that had beenseized from plantation owners and given to them.

Although the Freedmen’s Bureau could not pro-vide African Americans with land, it made an impor-tant contribution in education. The Bureau workedclosely with Northern charities to educate formerly


1896In Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Courtdecided that Jim Crow laws—state-man-dated segregation of public facilities suchas railroad cars—did not violate theFourteenth Amendment. The Court ruledthat separate facilities could be equal andallowed segregation to continue.

Testing the 14th Amendment✦ 1896 ✦ 1954

The FourteenthAmendment

Key provisions of the FourteenthAmendment (1868) made all persons born inthe United States citizens of both the nationand the state where they resided. States wereprohibited from abridging the rights of citi-zenship or depriving persons of due process and equal protection of the law.The Supreme Court has often cited theFourteenth Amendment when reviewingwhether state or federal laws and actions violate the Constitution. TheCourt continues to do so today.

1954In Brown v. Board of Education,the Court found that segregatededucation denied minority school-children like Linda Brown (farleft), the equal protection of thelaws provided by the FourteenthAmendment. This decision par-tially reversed Plessy v. Ferguson.

ple Lincoln had excluded, such as former Confederateofficers and officials. Those who were excluded couldapply to the president individually for a pardon. LikeLincoln, Johnson also required Southern states to rat-ify the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery.

The former Confederate states, for the most part,met Johnson’s conditions. They then organized newgovernments and elected people to Congress. By thetime Congress gathered for its next session inDecember 1865, Johnson’s plan was well underway.Many members of Congress were astonished andangered when they realized that Southern voters hadelected dozens of Confederate leaders to Congress.

Moderate Republicans joined with theRadical Republicans and voted to rejectthe new Southern members of Congress.

The Black Codes Another developmentin the South also angered congressionalRepublicans. The new Southern state legis-latures had passed laws known as blackcodes limiting the rights of African Ameri-cans in the South.

These codes varied from state to state, butall of them seemed intended to keep African

Americans in a condition similar to slavery. AfricanAmericans were generally required to enter intoannual labor contracts. Those who did not could bearrested for vagrancy and forced into involuntary servi-tude. Several codes established specific hours of laborand also required them to get licenses to work in non-agricultural jobs.

Summarizing Who did PresidentJohnson blame for the Civil War?

Congressional Reconstruction With the election of former Confederates to office

and the introduction of the black codes, more andmore moderate Republicans joined the radicals.Finally, in late 1865, House and Senate leaders cre-ated a Joint Committee on Reconstruction to developtheir own program for rebuilding the Union.

The Fourteenth Amendment In March 1866, con-gressional Reconstruction began with the passage of anact intended to override the black codes. The CivilRights Act of 1866 granted citizenship to all personsborn in the United States except for Native Americans.The act guaranteed the rights of African Americans toown property, and it stated that they were to be treatedequally in court. It also gave the federal governmentthe power to sue people who violated those rights.

Reading Check


✦1963 ✦2000

1963In Gideon v. Wainright, theSupreme Court ruled that thestate of Florida had violated thedue process clause when itrefused to appoint a lawyer torepresent Clarence Gideon(right). The ruling extended theBill of Rights to state courts.

2000In the presidential race between George W.Bush and Al Gore (at right), the Supreme Courtcase of Bush v. Gore was based on the Four-teenth Amendment. Justices argued that a lackof uniform standards for hand recounts ofballots in Florida violated the equal protection ofall the state’s voters. The decision allowed Bushto claim a controversial victory.

enslaved African Americans. It provided housing forschools, paid teachers, and helped train AfricanAmerican teachers.

Many freed African Americans served in the U.S.Cavalry in units formed after 1866. Most were sta-tioned in the southwestern United States, where theybecame known as buffalo soldiers.

Explaining Why was the Freedmen’sBureau established?

Johnson Takes OfficeShortly after Congress established the Freedmen’s

Bureau, Lincoln was assassinated. Although his suc-cessor, Vice President Andrew Johnson, was aDemocrat from Tennessee, he had remained loyal tothe Union. Like Lincoln, he believed in a moderatepolicy to bring the South back into the Union.

Johnson’s Plan In the summer of 1865, withCongress in recess, Johnson began to implement whathe called his restoration program, which closelyresembled Lincoln’s plan. In late May 1865, he issueda new Proclamation of Amnesty to supplement theone Lincoln had issued earlier. Johnson offered to par-don all former citizens of the Confederacy who tookan oath of loyalty to the Union and to return theirproperty. He excluded from the pardon the same peo-

Reading Check

266-271 ARC7S4-860712 11/24/03 7:45 AM Page 269

Johnson vetoed the Civil Rights Act, arguing thatit was unconstitutional and would “[cause] discordamong the races.” The veto convinced the remainingmoderate Republicans to join with the radicals tooverride Johnson’s veto, and the act became law.

Fearing that the Civil Rights Act might later beoverturned in court, however, the radicals intro-duced the Fourteenth Amendment to theConstitution. This amendment granted citizenship toall persons born or naturalized in the United Statesand declared that no state could deprive any personof life, liberty, or property “without due process oflaw.” It also declared that no state could deny anyperson “equal protection of the laws.” In June 1866,Congress passed the amendment and sent it to thestates for ratification. It was ratified in 1868.

Military Reconstruction Begins President John-son attacked the Fourteenth Amendment and made it the major issue of the 1866 congressional

elections. He hoped Northerners would vote out theRadical Republicans and elect a new majority inCongress that would support his plan forReconstruction.

Events on Election Day dashed Johnson’s hopes.When the votes were counted, the Republicansachieved an overwhelming victory, winning approxi-mately a three-to-one majority in Congress. Theynow had the strength of numbers to override anypresidential veto and could claim that they had amandate, or command, from the American people toenact their own Reconstruction program in place ofPresident Johnson’s plan.

In March 1867, Congress passed the MilitaryReconstruction Act, which essentially nullifiedJohnson’s programs. The act divided the formerConfederacy, except for Tennessee—which had rati-fied the Fourteenth Amendment in 1866—into fivemilitary districts. A Union general was placed incharge of each district with orders to maintain peace

and “protect the rights of per-sons and property.”

In the meantime, each for-mer Confederate state had tohold another constitutionalconvention to design a con-stitution acceptable toCongress. The new state con-stitutions had to give theright to vote to all adult malecitizens, regardless of theirrace. After a state had ratifiedits new constitution, it alsohad to ratify the FourteenthAmendment before it wouldbe allowed to elect people toCongress.

Johnson’s ImpeachmentThe Republicans knew thatthey had the votes to over-ride any presidential veto oftheir policies, but they alsoknew that President Johnsoncould still interfere with their plans by refusing toenforce the laws they passed.Although they distrustedJohnson, CongressionalRepublicans knew thatSecretary of War Edwin M.Stanton supported their pro-gram. They also trusted

80°W90°W

30°N

40°N

TROPIC OF CANCER

Atlantic

Ocean

Gulf of Mexico

1870TEX.

1868ARK.

1868LA.

1870MISS. 1868

ALA.

1870GA.

1868FLA.

1868S.C.

1868N.C.

1870VA.

(not part of a military district)

TENN. 1866

N. MEX.TERR.

UNORG.TERR.

MO.

ILL.

IOWA

WIS.MINN.

KANS.COLO. TERR.

MICH.

IND.OHIO

KY.

W.VA.

MD.DEL.

PA. N.J.

N.Y.CANADA

MEXICO

N

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EW

Lambert Equal-Area projection500 kilometers0

500 miles0

Military Districts, 1867

Military District Commander

General John Schofield

General Daniel Sickles

General John Pope

General Edward Ord

General Philip Sheridan

1870 Date of readmission to union

1. Interpreting Maps Only one former Confederate statewas not part of a military district. What was it?

2. Applying Geography Skills How many years after thewar was the last Southern state readmitted to the Union?



Checking for Understanding1. Define: Reconstruction, amnesty,

pocket veto, freedmen, black codes,impeach.

2. Identify: Freedmen’s Bureau,Fourteenth Amendment, MilitaryReconstruction Act, FifteenthAmendment.

Reviewing Themes3. Groups and Institutions What were

the Radical Republicans’ three majorgoals?

Critical Thinking4. Evaluating Do you think Presidents

Lincoln and Johnson were wise in notseeking harsh treatment of theSouthern states? Why or why not?

5. Categorizing Use a graphic organizerto describe the effects of the Civil War.

Analyzing Visuals6. Interpreting Maps Study the map of

military districts on page 270. Then listthe Confederate states that were read-mitted to the Union in 1868, the earliestyear for any such state to gain readmission.

Civil War

Effects on South

7. Persuasive Writing Imagine that youare a citizen living during PresidentAndrew Johnson’s administration. Writea letter urging members of Congress tovote either for or against Johnson’simpeachment. Include reasons for yourposition.

General Grant, the head of the army,to support the policies of Congress.

To prevent Johnson from bypass-ing Grant and Stanton, Congresspassed two new laws: the Com-mand of the Army Act and theTenure of Office Act. The Commandof the Army Act required all ordersfrom the president to go through theheadquarters of the general of thearmy—Grant’s headquarters. The Ten-ure of Office Act required the Senate toapprove the president’s removal of anygovernment official whose appointmenthad required the Senate’s consent.

Determined to challenge the Tenure ofOffice Act, Johnson fired Stanton onFebruary 21, 1868. Three days later, the House ofRepresentatives voted to impeach Johnson, meaningthat they charged him with “high crimes and misde-meanors” in office. The main charge against Johnsonwas that he had broken the law by refusing to upholdthe Tenure of Office Act.

As provided in the Constitution, the Senate thenput the president on trial. If two-thirds of the sena-tors found the president guilty of the charges, hewould be removed from office. In May 1868 theSenate voted 35 to 19 that Johnson was guilty of highcrimes and misdemeanors. This was just one voteshort of what was needed for conviction.

The Election of 1868 Although Johnson remainedin office, he finished his term quietly and did not runfor election in 1868. That year, the Republicans

nominated Grant. During the cam-paign, Union troops in the Southenabled African Americans tovote in large numbers. As aresult, Grant won six Southernstates and most of the Northernstates. The Republicans alsoretained large majorities in both

houses of Congress. With their majority securely

established and a sympatheticpresident in office, congressional

Republicans moved rapidly toexpand their Reconstruction pro-gram. Recognizing the importance ofAfrican American suffrage, theRepublican-led Congress passed the

Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution. Thisamendment declared that the right to vote “shallnot be denied . . . on account of race, color, or previ-ous condition of servitude.” In March 1870, theFifteenth Amendment was ratified by the states andbecame part of the Constitution.

Radical Reconstruction had a dramatic impact onthe South, particularly in the short term. It dramati-cally changed Southern politics by bringing hun-dreds of thousands of African Americans into thepolitical process for the first time. It also began tochange Southern society. As it did so, it angeredmany white Southerners, who began to fight backagainst the federal government’s policies.

Identifying What two laws did theRadical Republicans pass to reduce presidential power?

Andrew Johnson

1866Ku Klux Klan formed


✦ 1878

On a moonlit December night in the late 1860s, Essic Harris, a formerly enslaved man,woke suddenly after hearing loud noises outside his small home in Chatham County, NorthCarolina. He peered out his bedroom window and a wave of terror rushed over him. Thirtymen in white robes and hoods stood around the house. Many held shotguns. They weremembers of the Ku Klux Klan, an organization that used violence and intimidation to forceAfrican Americans and white Republicans out of Southern politics. They had come to harassHarris, who was active in local politics.

As Klan members began firing shotgun blasts at his home, Harris pushed his family into acorner and grabbed his own shotgun. He rushed to the front door and fired back, thenshouted to one of his childen, “Boy, bring my five-shooter!” Harris had no such gun, but hisbluff worked. The Klan members cursed Harris and rode off, but they would return. They con-tinued harassing Harris until he abandoned his home and moved to another county.

—adapted from The Fiery Cross

Republican Rule in the SouthBy the fall of 1870, all of the former Confederate states had rejoined the Union under the

congressional Reconstruction plan. Reunification, however, did little to restore harmonybetween the North and the South. Because of past disloyalty, some Southern whites werebarred from voting or holding office in the new Southern governments, and many others

Reconstruction andRepublican Rule

✦ 1874

1870First EnforcementAct passed

1873Panic of 1873 paralyzes nation

1877Compromise of1877 reached

Early KKK robe and hood

✦ 1866 ✦ 1870

Main IdeaUnder Republican rule, the South beganto rebuild. African Americans gained newopportunities, and some Southernersorganized to resist the Republicans.

Key Terms and Namescarpetbagger, scalawag, graft, Panic of 1873, Compromise of 1877, tenantfarmer, sharecropper

Reading StrategyTaking Notes As you read aboutSouthern society and the end ofReconstruction, use the major headingsof the section to create an outline similarto the one below.

Reading Objectives• Discuss Republican rule in the South

during Reconstruction.• Explain how Reconstruction ended,

and contrast the New South and the Old South.

Section ThemeEconomic Factors After Reconstruction,the South tried to create a new economy,but many problems remained.

Reconstruction and Republican RuleI. Republican Rule in the South

A.B.C.

simply refused to do so. As a result, a coalition ofNortherners, Southern-born whites, and AfricanAmericans created Republican governments in theSouthern states. While the governments instituted var-ious reforms, most white Southerners scorned them.

Carpetbaggers and Scalawags During Recon-struction, a large number of Northerners traveled to the South. Many were eventually elected orappointed to positions in the South’s new state gov-ernments. Southerners, particularly supporters of theDemocratic Party, referred to these newcomers ascarpetbaggers because some arrived with theirbelongings in suitcases made of carpet fabric. Manylocal residents viewed the Northerners as intrudersseeking to exploit the South’s postwar turmoil fortheir own gain.

While many Southerners despised carpetbaggers,they also disliked white Southerners who workedwith the Republicans and supported Reconstruction.They called these people scalawags—an old Scotch-Irish term for weak, underfed, worthless animals.

The scalawags were a diverse group of people.Some were former Whigs who had grudgingly joinedthe Democratic Party before the war. Many wereowners of small farms who did not want the wealthyplanters to regain power. Still others were businesspeople who favored Republican plans for developingthe South’s economy.

African Americans Enter Politics Thousands offormerly enslaved people also took part in governingthe South. Having gained the right tovote, African Americans quickly beganorganizing politically. Within a fewremarkable years, African Americanswent from enslaved workers to legisla-tors and administrators on nearly alllevels of government. Hundreds of for-merly enslaved people served as dele-gates to the conventions that createdthe new state constitutions. They alsowon election to numerous local offices,from mayor to police chief to schoolcommissioner. During Reconstruction,dozens of African Americans alsoserved in Southern state legislatures,while 14 were elected to the House ofRepresentatives and 2 others served inthe Senate.

While African Americans partici-pated in the South’s Reconstructiongovernments, they by no means

controlled them. The Republican Party took power inthe South because it had the support of a large num-ber of white Southerners. These were usually poorwhite farmers, who resented the planters andDemocratic Party that had dominated the Southbefore the Civil War.

Republican Reforms in the South The newlyelected Republican governments in the South quicklyinstituted a number of reforms. In addition to repeal-ing the black codes, they established state hospitalsand institutions for orphans. They rebuilt roads, rail-ways, and bridges damaged during the Civil Warand provided funds for the construction of new rail-roads and industries in the South.

The Republican reforms did not come withoutcost. Many state governments were forced to borrowmoney and to impose high property taxes to pay forthe repairs and new programs. Many property own-ers, unable to pay these new taxes, lost their land.

Although Republican leaders in the South demon-strated a devotion to public service, some of the moreself-seeking members caused Southern Democrats toaccuse the “carpetbag governments” of corruption.One Republican governor admitted accepting morethan $40,000 in bribes. Graft, or gaining money ille-gally through politics, was common in the South, justas it was in the North at the time.

Summarizing What three groups ofpeople helped to create Republican governments in the Southduring Reconstruction?

i n H i s t o r y

Hiram Revels 1822–1901

For a man reluctant to enter politics,Hiram Revels went a long way—becoming the first African American inthe United States Senate. Revels wasborn to free parents in Fayetteville,North Carolina. In 1845 he became aminister in the African MethodistChurch. Soon after, Revels settled inBaltimore, where he worked as achurch pastor and as the principal of an African American school.

After the Civil War, Revels settled inNatchez, Mississippi, where he contin-ued his religious work. At first, Revelsexpressed reluctance to wade too

deeply into politics,but he overcamethis concern andwon the respect ofboth whites andAfrican Americans.In 1870 Revels waselected to theSenate. As the firstAfrican American senator,he served in a subdued manner, speak-ing much less than other AfricanAmerican members of Congress. Uponhis retirement from the Senate, Revelsserved twice as president of AlcornUniversity, an African American collegein Mississippi.


African American CommunitiesIn addition to their efforts on the political stage,

African Americans worked to improve their lives inother ways during Reconstruction. Upon gainingtheir freedom, many African Americans desired aneducation, something they had been denied underslavery. In the first years of Reconstruction, theFreedmen’s Bureau, with the help of Northern chari-ties, had established schools for African Americansacross the South.

Gradually, the number of both African Americanstudents and teachers increased, and by 1876 about40 percent of all African American children (roughly600,000 students) attended school in the region.

With the same determination they showed inpursuing an education, formerly enslaved peopleacross the South worked to establish their ownchurches. Religion had long played a central role inthe lives of many African Americans, and with theshackles of slavery now gone, the building ofchurches quickly began. Churches served as thecenter of many African American communities, asthey housed schools and hosted social events andpolitical gatherings.

Examining How did education forAfrican Americans change during Reconstruction?

Southern ResistanceAt the same time these changes were taking place

in the South, African Americans often faced intenseresentment from many Southern whites. ManySoutherners also despised the Republican govern-ments, which they believed vindictive Northernershad forced upon them.

Unable to strike openly at the Republicans runningtheir states, some Southern opponents of Recon-struction organized secret societies to undermineRepublican rule. The largest of these groups was theKu Klux Klan. Started in 1866 by former Confederatesoldiers in Pulaski, Tennessee, the Klan spread rap-idly throughout the South. Hooded, white-robedKlan members rode in bands at night terrorizingAfrican Americans, white Republicans, carpetbag-gers, teachers in African American schools, and oth-ers who supported the Republican governments.Republicans and African Americans responded to theattacks by organizing their own militias to fight back.

As the violence on both sides increased, PresidentGrant and Congress took action. In 1870 and 1871,Congress passed three Enforcement Acts, one of whichoutlawed the activities of the Klan. Throughout theSouth, local authorities and federal agents, actingunder the Enforcement Acts, arrested more than 3,000Klan members. Southern juries convicted only about600, however, and fewer still served any time in prison.

DescribingWhy did Congress pass the EnforcementActs?

The Troubled GrantAdministration

Despite his decisive actionsagainst the Ku Klux Klan, UlyssesS. Grant was not a forceful presi-dent. He believed that the presi-dent’s role was to carry out the laws and leave the develop-ment of policy to Congress.Eventually, Grant’s lack of politi-cal experience and drive helpedto divide the Republican Partyand undermine public supportfor Reconstruction.

Throughout Grant’s first term,a growing number of Republicansexpressed concerns that men whowere in office to make money and

Schools for African Americans O.O. Howard, head of the Freedmen’s Bureau, is pictured here (farright) with the students of a Freedmen’s school. Why do you think these schools were so successful?

History


sell influence were beginningto dominate the RepublicanParty. These critics alsoargued that the economicpolicies most Republicanssupported, such as high tariffs, favored the rich overthe poor. Eventually thesecritics, known as LiberalRepublicans, broke with theRepublican Party in 1872 andnominated their own candi-date, the influential newspa-per publisher Horace Greeley.Despite this split, Grant easilywon re-election.

During Grant’s secondterm, a series of scandalsdamaged his administration’sreputation. In one scandal,Grant’s secretary of war,William Belknap, was foundto have accepted bribes frommerchants operating at armyposts in the West. He wasimpeached but resigned before the Senate could tryhim. Then, in 1875, the “Whiskey Ring” scandalbroke. A group of government officials and dis-tillers in St. Louis cheated the government out ofmillions of dollars by filing false tax reports. It wasreported that Orville E. Babcock, Grant’s privatesecretary, was in this group, although the chargeswere never proven.

In addition to these political scandals, Grant andthe nation endured a staggering and long-lastingeconomic crisis that began during Grant’s secondterm. The turmoil started in 1873, when a series ofbad railroad investments forced the powerful bank-ing firm of Jay Cooke and Company to declarebankruptcy. A wave of fear known as the Panic of1873 quickly spread though the nation’s financialcommunity. The panic prompted scores of smallerbanks to close and caused the stock market toplummet. It soon set off a full-fledged depressionthat lasted until almost the end of the decade.

The scandals in the Grant administration and thenation’s deepening economic depression hurt theRepublicans politically. In the 1874 midterm elec-tions, the Democrats won back control of the Houseof Representatives and made gains in the Senate.

Explaining Why did the LiberalRepublicans oppose President Grant?

Reconstruction EndsThe rising power of the Democrats in Congress

made enforcing Reconstruction more difficult. At thesame time, Northerners were becoming more con-cerned with the government scandals and their owneconomic problems than with the situation in theSouth.

In the 1870s, Democrats began to regain power inthe South. They did so in part through intimidationand fraud, and in part by defining the elections as astruggle between whites and African Americans.They also won back support by promising to cut thehigh taxes the Republicans had imposed and byaccusing Republicans of corruption. SouthernDemocrats viewed their efforts to regain power as acrusade to help save the South from Republican rule.By 1876 the Democrats had taken control of all but three Southern state legislatures.

That year, the nation’s presidential election pit-ted Republican Rutherford B. Hayes, a former gov-ernor of Ohio, against Democrat Samuel Tilden, awealthy corporate lawyer and former governor ofNew York. On Election Day, twenty electoral voteswere disputed. Nineteen of the votes were in thethree Southern states controlled by Republicans.

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The Election of 1876

Hayes 185 4,036,572 Republican

Democrat4,284,020184

CandidateElectoral

VotePopular

VotePolitical

Party

Tilden

Presidential Election, 1876

DisputedTerritories


1. Interpreting Maps In which stateswere election results disputed?

2. Applying Geography Skills In whatregions of the country did Hayes winsupport?

As a result, congressional leaders worked out anagreement known as the Compromise of 1877.

Historians are not sure if a deal really took place orwhat its exact terms were. The compromise report-edly included the following conditions: SouthernDemocrats agreed to give the election to Hayes, andin return, the Republicans promised that a Southernerwould become postmaster general. This was animportant position because of the many federal jobs itcontrolled. The Republicans reportedly also promisedfunds for internal improvements in the South. Mostimportantly, they agreed to withdraw the remainingfederal troops from the South. In April 1877, afterassuming the presidency, Hayes did pull federaltroops out of the South. Without soldiers to support

them, the last remaining Republican governments inthe South quickly collapsed. Reconstruction hadcome to an end.

Explaining What major issue wassettled by the Compromise of 1877?

A “New South” ArisesDuring his inaugural speech in March 1877,

President Hayes expressed his desire to move thecountry beyond the quarrelsome years ofReconstruction in part by putting an end to the nation’sregional distinctions. He hoped to narrow the divisionsof sectionalism that had long plagued the nation:


Carpetbaggers: Corrupt or Well-Intentioned?

According to Southerners, many carpetbaggers were corruptNortherners who came south to get rich or to get elected. Filmslike Gone with the Wind influenced many generations to acceptthis view. The opposing interpretation argues that Northernerswere not necessarily corrupt but often simply wanted to makenew lives or aid African Americans.

In an 1871 question-and-answer session beforeCongress, William Manning Lowe, a formerConfederate colonel and Alabama lawyer, criticizedhis state’s U.S. senators, Willard Warner and GeorgeSpencer. Both were originally from Northern states:

“[A] carpet-bagger is generally understood to be aman who comes here for office sake, of an ignorant orbad character, and who seeks to array the Negroesagainst the whites . . . in order to get office throughthem. . . . (The term) does not apply to all northern menwho come here. . . . We regard any republican or anyman as a man of bad character, whether he is native orforeign born, who seeks to obtain office from theNegroes by exciting their passions and prejudices againstthe whites. We think that a very great evil—very great.We are intimately associated with the Negro race; wehave a large number in the country, and we think itessential that we shall live in peace together. . . . No, sir;the term is never applied to a democrat under anycircumstances. . . .”

—quoted in Reconstruction: Opposing Viewpoints

Learning From History1. Evaluating Which of these two

viewpoints most accuratelydescribes carpetbaggers? Why?

2. Analyzing Choose one of the view-points above. Write three questionsyou would like to ask your chosenspeaker.

In 1871 Oliver Morton, a Radical Republican senatorfrom Indiana, defended Northerners who relocatedto the South, claiming they were beneficial to thatregion:

“When the war ended many men who had been inthe Union army remained in the South, intending tomake it their home. . . . Others emigrated from theNorth, taking with them large capital, believing that theSouth presented fine prospects for business. . . . It sohappened, and was, in fact, necessary, that many ofthese men should be elected to office. This was theirright and the natural result of the circumstances bywhich they were surrounded. . . . Emigration is a part ofthe genius of the American people. . . . it is an odiousand anti-American doctrine that a man has no right to beelected to an office in a State because he was not born init. . . . What the South needs is emigrants with carpetbags well filled with capital to revive industry. . . .”

—quoted in Reconstruction: Opposing Viewpoints



Check for Understanding1. Define: carpetbagger, scalawag, graft,

tenant farmer, sharecropper.2. Identify: Panic of 1873, Compromise

of 1877.3. Describe how some white Southerners

reacted to the Republican Party gainingpower in the South.

Reviewing Themes4. Economic Factors What factors con-

tributed to improving the economy ofthe South after Reconstruction?

Critical Thinking5. Analyzing Why did Southerners resent

both carpetbaggers and scalawags?6. Organizing Use a graphic organizer

similar to the one below to identify theproblems that President Grant’s admin-istration faced.

Analyzing Visuals7. Examining Photographs Study the

photograph of O.O. Howard and aFreedmen’s school on page 274. Howwould you describe the childrendepicted in this photograph?

8. Expository Writing Write a shortessay explaining what you consider tobe the three most important events ofthe Reconstruction period. Explain whyyou chose these events.

“Let me assure my countrymen of the SouthernStates that it is my earnest desire to regard and pro-mote their truest interests—the interests of the whiteand colored people both equally—and to put forth mybest efforts in behalf of a civil policy which will foreverwipe out . . . the distinction between North and South,to the end that we may have not merely a united Northor a united South, but a united country.”

—quoted in Rutherford B. Hayes

Eventually the South did develop closer ties withthe North. Southern leaders realized the South couldnever return to the pre–Civil War agricultural econ-omy dominated by the planter elite. Instead, theseSoutherners called for the creation of a “New South.”They were convinced that the region had to developa strong industrial economy. An alliance betweenSoutherners and Northern financiers brought greateconomic changes to some parts of the South.Northern capital helped to build thousands of milesof railroads and dozens of new industries.

The South, however, changed very little. Despiteits industrial growth, the region remained largelyagricultural. As late as 1900, its number of manufac-turing establishments equaled only 4 percent of itsnumber of farms. For many African Americans in par-ticular, the end of Reconstruction meant a return tothe “old South” and an end to their hopes of beinggranted their own land. Instead many returned to theplantations owned by whites, where they, along withmany poor white farmers, either worked for wages orbecame tenant farmers paying rent for the land theyfarmed. After the Civil War, the South’s weak econ-omy did not have enough cash available and the costof borrowing money was high. Many farmers could

not afford to buy their own land. As a result, mosttenant farmers became sharecroppers. Sharecroppersdid not pay their rent in cash. Instead they paid ashare of their crops, often as much as two-thirds, tocover their rent as well as the cost of the seed, fertil-izer, tools and animals they needed.

Although sharecropping allowed AfricanAmerican farmers to control their work schedulesand working conditions for the first time in theirlives, they rarely had enough crops left over to sell toenable them to buy their own land. The Civil Warended slavery, but Reconstruction’s failure left manyAfrican Americans, as well as many whites, trappedin economic circumstances beyond their control.

Summarizing What alliancebrought economic change in the South?

A New South? While the developing downtown area of Houston, Texas, in the1890s was similar to other Southern urban areas, most of the South remainedagricultural in the decades following the Civil War. What did the leaders of the“New South” movement support?

History

Problems Faced byGrant’s Administration

N O T E B O O K

V E R B A T I MV E R B A T I M

EyewitnessEyewitnessWILLIAM H. CROOKE served as a bodyguard for President AndrewJohnson and witnessed the decisive vote by Edmund Ross during theimpeachment trial in the Senate on Saturday, May 16, 1868. Here,Crooke recalls the scene:

The tension grew. There was a weary number of names before that ofRoss was reached. When the clerk called it, and Ross [senator fromKansas] stood forth, the crowd held its breath.

‘Not guilty,’ called the senator from Kansas. It was like the babbling [sic]over of a caldron. The Radical Senators, who had been laboring withRoss only a short time before, turned to him in rage; all over the housepeople began to stir. The rest of the roll-call was listened to with lessenedinterest. . . . When it was over, and the result—35 to 19—was announced,there was a wild outburst, chiefly groans of anger and disappointment,for the friends of the president were in the minority.

It was all over in a moment, and Mr. Johnson was ordering somewhiskey from the cellar. [President Johnson was not convicted.]

“If the South is ever to be made a safe Republic, let herlands be cultivated by the toil of the owners, or the free labor of intelligent citizens.”THADDEUS STEVENS,

arguing for land redistribution in the South during Reconstruction

“In the South, the [Civil] war iswhat A.D. is elsewhere; they date from it.” MARK TWAIN,

from Life on the Mississippi

“For we colored people did notknow how to be free and the whitepeople did not know how to have afree colored person about them.”HOUSTON HARTSFIELD HOLLOWAY,

freedman, on the problem ofReconstruction

“As in the war, freedom was the keynote of victory, so now is universal suffrage the keynoteof Reconstruction.”ELIZABETH CADY STANTON,

arguing for universal suffrage, 1867

“We thought we was goin’ to bericher than the white folks, ’causewe was stronger and knowed howto work, and the whites didn’t andthey didn’t have us to work forthem anymore. But it didn’t turn outthat way. We soon found out thatfreedom could make folks proudbut it didn’t make ’em rich.”FELIX HAYWOOD,

former slave

While he was neither “first in war, first in peace” nor “first in the hearts of hiscountrymen,” President Andrew Johnson left his mark on history:

� First to have never attended school

� First to be impeached

� First to be elected to the Senate bothbefore and after being president

� First to host a queen at the White House

� First tailor/president who made his own clothes

� Last not to attend successor’s inauguration

� Most vetoes overridden

� Father of the Homestead Act

P R E S I D E N T I A L S U P E R L A T I V E SP R E S I D E N T I A L S U P E R L A T I V E S

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MilestonesREEXAMINED. THE ROMANTICSTORY OF POCAHONTAS, basedon the written account of CaptainJohn Smith. The London Spectator,reporting on the work of Mr. E.Neils, debunks Smith’s tale of theyoung Pocahontas flinging herselfbetween him and her father’s club.The young girl was captured andheld prisoner on board a Britishship and then forcibly married to Mr. John Rolfe. CommentsAppleton’s Journal in 1870: “All thatis heroic, picturesque, or romanticin history seems to be rapidlydisappearing under the microscopicscrutiny of modern critics.”

FOUNDED, 1877. NICODEMUS,KANSAS, by six African Americanand two white Kansans. On thehigh, arid plains of GrahamCounty, the founders hope to establish a community ofhomesteading former slaves.

TOPPED, 1875. THE ONE MILLIONMARK FOR POPULATION, by NewYork City. New York is the ninthcity in the history of the world toachieve a population level ofmore than one million. The firstwas Rome in 133 B.C.

EXTINGUISHED, 1871. THEPESHTIGO FOREST FIRE inWisconsin. The conflagrationcaused 2,682 deaths. The Peshtigotragedy has been overshadowedby the Great Chicago Fire of thesame year, which killed 300.

PUBLISHED, 1865. DRUM TAPS,by Walt Whitman. Based on hisexperiences as a hospital volunteer,Whitman’s new poems chroniclethe horrors of the Civil War.

THROWN, 1867. FIRSTCURVEBALL, by William A.“Candy” Cummings of theBrooklyn Excelsiors. In a gameagainst Harvard, pitcherCummings put a spin on the ballto make it swerve downward.Most spectators thought the ball’scurved path was an illusion.

N U M B E R S(Re)inventing AmericaPatents awarded to African American inventors during the Reconstruction period:

ALEXANDER ASHBOURNE biscuit cutter

LANDROW BELL locomotive smokestack

LEWIS HOWARD LATIMER water closets (toilets) for railway cars, electric lamp with cotton filament, dough kneader

THOMAS ELKINS refrigerator with cooling coils

THOMAS J. MARTIN fire extinguisher

ELIJAH McCOY automatic oil cup and 57 other devices and machineparts, including an ironing board and lawn sprinkler

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Refrigerators keep foods cool.

Freedmen’s classroom

$7,200,000Purchase price paid by U.S. toRussia for Alaska in 1867

2¢ Price paid per acre for Alaska

$30 Boarding and tuition, per quarter, at Saint FrancesAcademy, boarding school forAfrican American girls in Baltimore,Maryland. Students come fromstates as distant as Florida andMissouri for an education“productive of the happiest effectsamong individuals and in society.”

$5 Extra charge for instruction in embroidery

$25 Extra charge for instruction in making wax fruit

$3 Tuition, per quarter, for local “day scholars”

5,407 Number of pupils in Mississippi Freedmen’sschools in 1866

50 Number of schools established for freed AfricanAmericans in Mississippi in 1866

20% Percentage of stateincome of Mississippi spent onartificial arms and legs for warveterans in 1866


Reviewing Key Facts24. Identify: Robert E. Lee, Copperhead, Trent Affair, Anaconda

Plan, Ulysses S. Grant, Military Reconstruction Act.

25. What effects did the Emancipation Proclamation have on the war?

26. How did the Civil War affect the South’s economy?

27. How did the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and FifteenthAmendments advance civil rights?

28. What did President Johnson do that convinced Congress thathe was not carrying out the laws Congress had passed forReconstruction?

29. What were said to be the provisions of the Compromise of 1877?

Critical Thinking30. Analyzing Themes: Civic Rights and Responsibilities

President Lincoln suspended writs of habeas corpus to pre-vent interference with the draft. Do you think suspendingcivil liberties is justified in some situations? Why or why not?

31. Interpreting Primary Sources At the beginning of the CivilWar, Robert E. Lee wrote to his sister, Mrs. Anne Marshall, ofhis decision to resign from the U.S. Army. Read the excerptand answer the questions that follow.

“With all my devotion to the Union and the feeling ofloyalty and duty of an American citizen, I have not beenable to make up my mind to raise my hand against myrelatives, my children, my home. I have, therefore,resigned my commission in the Army, and, save indefense of my native state . . . I hope I may never becalled on to draw my sword. I know you will blame me;but you must think as kindly of me as you can. . . .”

—from Personal Reminiscences, Anecdotes, and Letters of General Robert E. Lee

1. greenback

2. conscription

3. habeas corpus

4. attrition

5. bounty

6. blockade runner

7. hardtack

8. prisoner of war

9. forage

10. siege

11. torpedo

12. mandate

13. Reconstruction

14. amnesty

15. pocket veto

16. freedmen

17. black codes

18. impeach

19. carpetbagger

20. scalawag

21. graft

22. tenant farmer

23. sharecropper

Reviewing Key TermsOn a sheet of paper, use each of these terms in a sentence.

1861• First Battle of

Bull Run (Manassas)

1863• Emancipation

Proclamation issued

• North wins decisive victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg

1866• Fourteenth

Amendment passed

1868• Andrew Johnson impeached

• Ulysses S. Grant wins presidency

1870• Fifteenth

Amendment passed

1862• Monitor and Virginia

battle to a draw

• South introduces conscription for military service; David Farragutcaptures New Orleans

• Battle of Antietam

1865• Thirteenth

Amendment passed

• South surrenders

• John Wilkes Boothassassinates Lincoln

1877• Compromise of 1877

ends Reconstruction1873• Economic panic

strikes U.S

1867• Military

Reconstruction Act passed

Civil War Reconstruction

1861 1869 1877

a. What were Robert E. Lee’s feelings about the war?

b. Why did Lee feel it necessary to resign from the Unionarmy and become a Confederate army commander?

32. Organizing Complete a graphic organizer similar to the onebelow by listing the effects of the Civil War on the nation.

Practicing Skills33. Evaluating a Web Site Go through the steps described on

page 256 for evaluating a Web site. Then search the Internetfor Web sites that deal with prisoners of war during the CivilWar. Write a report describing the best and worst site youfind, listing reasons for your evaluations.

Economics and History34. The graph on this page shows agricultural production in the

South from 1860 to 1900. Study the graph and answer thequestions below.a. Interpreting Graphs Which crops surpassed pre–Civil

War levels of production by 1890?

b. Synthesizing What factors do you think might have con-tributed to the increase in agricultural production levels inthe South in the late 1800s?

Writing Activity35. Portfolio Writing Choose one of the events of the Civil War

or Reconstruction discussed in the chapter. Imagine that theradio had been invented at that time. Write a radio news seg-ment in which you provide information about the event andyour view of it. Include the script for the radio segment inyour portfolio.

Chapter Activity36. Research Projects Use library sources to find examples of

political cartoons from the Civil War or Reconstruction era.Create a display of these cartoons and write a summary ofhow they illustrate the major issues of the time period.

Results ofCivil War

StandardizedTest Practice

Directions: Choose the phrase that bestcompletes the statement below.

One advantage that Southern states held during the CivilWar was that

A they received military and financial support from theBritish and the French.

B many battles occurred on lands with which Southernerswere more familiar.

C the largest weapons factories were located in the South.

D most people agreed with the position of the Southernstates.

Test-Taking Tip: When you are not sure of an answer, itcan be helpful to use the process of elimination. For example, you probably remember that the North had agreater population than the South. Therefore, answer D isprobably incorrect.

0

2

4

6

8

10

200

300

400

500

600

700

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

Mill

ions

of b

ales

Mill

ions

of p

ound

s

Cotton Tobacco

Rice Corn

Mill

ions

of p

ound

s

Mill

ions

of b

ushe

ls

1860 1870 1880 1890 1900

1860 1870 1880 1890 19001860 1870 1880 1890 1900

1860 1870 1880 1890 1900

Source: Historical Statistics of the South, 1790–1970

Agricultural Productionin the South, 1860–1900


Self-Check QuizVisit the American Republic Since 1877 Web site at

and click on Self-Check Quizzes—Chapter 7 to assess your knowledge of chapter content.

HISTORY

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